:§§       Laboratory  Exercises 


—  IN— 


Physiography 


BY 

JAMES  H.  SMITH 

IRA  W.  STAHL 

MARION  SYKES 


D.    C.    HEATH    &    CO.,    Publishers 

BOSTON  NEW  YORK  CHICAGO 


/' 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
AT  LOS  ANGELES 


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exercises   in 

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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 

Los  Angeles 
This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


LABORATORY    EXERCISES 

IN 

PHYSIOGRAPHY 


BY 

JAMES    H.    SMITH 

Austin  High  School 

IRA    W.    STAHL 

Lane  Technical  High  School 

MARION    SYKES 

Bowen  High  School 
Chicago,  Illinois 


D.    C.    HEATH    &    COMPANY 

BOSTON  NEW   VORK  CHICAGO 


Copyright,  1912. 
3y  D.  C.   Heath  &  Co. 

2p6 


Printed  in  U.  S.  1 


(xBS 


PREFACE 

This  book  of  Laboratory  Exercises  has  been  written  to  meet  the  needs  of  high 
school  pupils.  It  is  adapted  to  either  a  full  year  or  a  half  year  course.  The  work  has 
been  simplified  with  the  hope  that  it  may  be  readily  understood  by  first  year  pupils. 

We  recommend  that  each  teacher  take  one  or  more  of  the  field  trips  with  his 
class.     We  believe  that  such  work  is  of  as  great  value  as  any  that  can  be  given. 

A  list  of  references  is  given  after  each  exercise  with  the  view  of  making  the  book 
valuable  in  classes  using  any  of  the  texts  referred  to.  The  references  may  be  help- 
ful also  to  those  who  wish  to  do  library  work  with  their  classes. 

We  desire  to  acknowledge  our  indebtedness  to  our  fellow  teachers  of  physiography 
in  the  Chicago  high  schools.  Among  these  we  wish  especially  to  thank  Mr.  Ralph 
E.  Blount  for  material  assistance  in  the  preparation  of  Exercise  8,  Planetary  Winds, 
and  for  other  suggestions.  We  express  also  our  appreciation  of  the  courtesies  shown 
us  by  Henry  J.  Cox,  Professor  of  Meteorology  and  District  Forecaster  in  charge  of  the 
United  States  Weather  Bureau  Office  at  Chicago,  who  has  placed  at  our  command  the 
records  of  his  office. 

THE   AUTHORS 


3 

I 88452 


KEY  TO  REFERENCES 


Abbreviation 
A.  B.  C.  M. 

Davis 

Dryer 

G.  and  B. 

Hopkins 

Salisbury,  Br. 

Salisbury,  El. 
Tarr 


Title 

Physiography     for    High 
Schools 

Elementary  Physical  Ge- 
ography 

Lessons  in  Physical  Geog- 
raphy 

Introduction  to  Physical 
Geography 

Elements      of      Physical 
Geography 

Physiography    for    High 
Schools 

Elementary  Physiography 

New  Physical  Geography 


Author 

Arey,  Bryant,  Clendenin, 
and  Morrey 

W.  M.  Davis 


Charles  R.  Dryer 

Gilbert  and  Brigham 

Thomas  C.  Hopkins 

Rollin  D.  Salisbury 

Rollin  D.  Salisbury 
Ralph  S.  Tarr 


Publisher 
D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

Ginn  &  Company 

American  Book  Company 


D.    Appleton   and    Com- 
pany 

Benj.  H.  Sanborn  &  Co. 


Henry  Holt  and  Co. 

Henry  Holt  and  Co. 
The  Macmillan  Company 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

1.  Expansion  due  to  Heat l.j 

2.  Insolation.    The  Heat  received  from  the  Sun 15 

3.  Temperature  Distribution  over  the  Earth 19 

4.  Influence  of  Latitude  on  Seasonal  Range  of  Temperature 21 

5.  Influence  of  Land  and  Sea  on  Seasonal  Range  of  Temperature 23 

6.  Moisture  in  the  Air.    Humidity 25 

7.  The  Mercury  Barometer  and  its  Action 29 

8.  Planetary  or  Terrestrial  Winds 33 

9.  Map  of  Planetary  Wind  Belts  . 39 

10.  Winds  and  Currents ...                 43 

11.  Study  of  the  Weather  Map 45 

12.  The  Temperate  Latitude  Cyclone  and  Anticyclone     .           47 

13.  Visit  to  a  United  States  Weather  Bureau  Forecasting  Station 49 

14.  Distribution  of  Rainfall  in  the  United  States      .           53 

15.  Monthly  and  Seasonal  Rainfall  in  the  Climatic  Regions  of  the  United  States  55 

16.  Influence  of  Rainfall  on  Vegetation 59 

17.  Parallels  and  Meridians ....           61 

18.  Standard  Time 65 

19.  The  Most  Common  Minerals 69 

20.  The  Most  Common  Rocks 73 

21.  Delta  Table  Study 75 

22.  The  Mississippi  and  St.  Lawrence  River  Basins 79 

23.  Iron  and  Coal 83 

24.  Comparative  Study  of  Contour  Map?, 85 

25.  Study  of  Stream  Erosion  from  a  Contour  Map.    Highwood,  III 87 

26.  Stream  Valleys  in  a  Level  Plain.     La  Salle,  III 89 

27.  Topographic  Effects  of  Stream  Erosion.    Savanna,  Ia.-Ill 91 

28.  River  Flood  Plains.    Donaldsonville,  La 93 

29.  The  North  American  Ice  Sheet 97 

30.  Glacial  Topography.     Weedsport,  N.  Y.,  Whitewater,  Wis 99 

31.  Shore  Lines.    Atlantic  City,  N.  J.,  Boothbay,  Me 101 

32.  The  Chicago  Region 103 

33.  Commercial  and  Industrial  Chicago 105 

5 


34.  New  York  and  Vicinity 107 

35.  Effect  of  Erosion  upon  Rocks  of  Unequal  Hardness.    Habrisbtjhg,  Pa.      .     .  109 

36.  Rugged  Mountains.     Platte  Canton,  Col Ill 

37.  Plateaus.    Charleston,  W.  Va.,  Kaibab,  Ariz 113 

38.  Physiographic  Regions  of  the  United  States 117 

39.  Cotton  Production 123 

40.  Wheat  Production 127 

41.  Corn  Production 131 

42.  Field  Trip  to  a  Quarry 133 

43.  Field  Trip  to  study  Stream  Action 135 

44.  Field  Trip  to  a  Beach 137 

45.  Field  Trip  to  a  Brick  Yard 139 


MATERIAL  REQUIRED 


In  demonstration  exercises,  the  articles  listed  under  material  are  needed  for  the  teacher  only;  in 
other  exercises  sufficient  material  is  needed  to  supply  each  pupil. 


Barometer. 

Barometer  tube. 

Brass  ring,  with  ball  to  fit. 

Bunsen  burner. 

Droppers. 

Flask,  flat-bottomed,  with  one-hole  rubber  stopper 

to  fit. 
Glass  dish,  small,  for  barometer. 
Glass  funnel,  with  small  stem. 
Glass  tubing  to  fit  stopper. 
Globes,  six  inch,  one  for  each  pupil. 
Hand  magnifiers. 
Hydrochloric  acid. 

Hygrometer,  or  wet  and  dry  bulb  thermometers. 
Iron  stand,  with  ring  and  clamp. 
Maps.     See  separate  list. 
Matches. 

Mercury,  two  or  three  pounds. 
Minerals 

Calcite. 

Feldspar. 

Hornblende. 


Minerals,  Continued. 

Mica. 

Quartz. 
Paste. 
Rocks 

Granite. 

Limestone. 

Marble. 

Sandstone. 

Shale. 

Slate. 
Rubber  stopper,  one-hole,  to  fit  flask. 
Rubber  tubing. 
Rulers. 
Salt. 

Sand  (molding). 

Sprayer,  whitewash  sprayer,  if  possible. 
Steel  rods  or  knitting  needles. 
Stirring  rods. 
Wax  or  chewing  gum. 
Window  glass,  3"  X  3",  for  each  pupil. 
Wire  gauze,  one  piece. 


North  Atlantic. 
South  Atlantic. 


Maps  and  Charts. 

Meteorological  (Pilot)  Charts  of  the 

North  Pacific. 
South  Pacific. 


Topographic  Maps. 


Atlantic  City,  New  Jersey. 
Boothbay,  Maine. 
Bright  Angel,  Arizona. 
Charleston,  West  Virginia. 
Donaldsonville,  Louisiana. 
Fargo,  North  Dakota-Minnesota 
Harrisburg,  Pennsylvania. 
Highwood,  Illinois. 


Kaibab,  Arizona. 
La  Salle,  Illinois. 
Platte  Canyon,  Colorado. 
Savanna,  Iowa-Illinois. 
Shasta  Special,  California. 
Sun  Prairie,  Wisconsin. 
Weedsport,  New  York. 
Whitewater,  Wisconsin. 


Geological  Folios. 


Chicago  Folio. 


New  York  City  Folio. 


Weather  Maps. 
Daily  weather  map. 
A  series  of  weather  maps  for  consecutive  days,  for  each  pupil. 


The  meteorological  charts  may  be  obtained  from  the  Weather  Bureau  Office  at  Washington.  Can- 
celed charts  for  class  use  may  be  obtained  upon  request. 

Topographic  maps  may  be  purchased  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey  for  five  cents  each, 
or  three  dollars  per  hundred.  The  price  of  Bright  Angel,  Arizona,  sheet  is  ten  cents.  Geological  folios 
may  be  purchased  of  the  Geological  Survey  for  fifty  cents  each.  The  daily  weather  maps  may  be 
obtained  upon  application  to  the  nearest  United  States  Weather  Bureau  Forecasting  Station.  In  some 
eities  the  daily  weather  map  is  published  in  the  newspapers. 


CONTENTS   OF    NOTEBOOK 


Number  of 
Exercise 


Title   of  Exercise 


10 


EXERCISE   I 
EXPANSION   DUE   TO   HEAT.     DEMONSTRATION 

Material  for  A.     Brass  ring  with  ball  to  fit,  bunsen  burner. 

Material  for  B.  Flat-bottomed  flask,  colored  water,  one-hole  rubber  stopper  with 
glass  tubing  to  fit,  iron  stand  and  wire  gauze,  mercury  thermometer. 

Material  for  C.  Flask  with  rubber  stopper,  through  which  passes  a  glass  tube, 
colored  water,  iron  stand  with  ring. 

A.     Expansion  in  Solids 

Notice  how  snugly  the  ball  fits  the  ring  when  cold.  Heat  the  ball  with  the  bunsen 
burner,  then  try  to  pass  it  through  the  ring. 

1.  Does  the  ball  pass  through  the  ring  after  being  heated?     Tell  how  heat  has 
changed  the  size  of  the  ball. 

2.  Cool  the  ball.     Does  it  now  pass  through  the  ring?     Explain. 

3.  Other  solids  act  as  the  brass  ball  when  heated.     Why  does  glass  break  when 
suddenly  heated? 

4.  When  the  sun  heats  a  rock,  why  do  the  outside  layers  become  loosened  and 
come  off?     This  result  is  especially  noticeable  in  mountains. 

B.     Expansion  in  Liquids 

Fill  the  flask  with  the  colored  water  and  fit  it  with  the  stopper  and  glass  tubing. 
Place  it  on  the  wire  gauze  on  the  iron  stand  and  heat  with  bunsen  burner.  The  first 
effect  when  heat  is  applied  is  the  sinking  of  the  water  in  the  tube,  due  to  the  expansion 
of  the  flask. 

5.  As  the  water  becomes  warmed,  how  does  the  height  of  the  water  in  the  tube 
change?     Why  so? 

6.  Is  the  density  of  the  water  greater  or  less  when  heated? 

7.  Is  its  weight  per  cubic  inch  greater  or  less  when  heated? 

8.  As  the  water  cools,  how  does  the  height  of  the  water  in  the  tube  change? 

9.  How  does  this  affect  its  density? 

10.  How  does  the  cooling  affect  its  weight  per  cubic  inch? 

11.  Hold  the  bulb  of  the  thermometer  in  the  hand  or  in  warm  water.  Explain 
the  action  of  the  thermometer. 

C.     Expansion  in  Gases 

Invert  the  flask  and  place  it  in  the  ring  of  the  stand  so  that  the  lower  end  of  the 
tube  dips  into  the  colored  water  about  an  inch.  Heat  the  flask  of  air  with  the  hands 
or  bunsen  flame  playing  over  it. 

12.  What  is  happening  in  the  water?     In  the  flask? 

13.  How  is  the  density  of  the  air  in  the  flask  changed  when  heated? 

14.  How  is  its  weight  per  cubic  inch  changed  when  heated? 

15.  Allow  the  air  in  the  flask  to  cool.     What  does  the  water  do? 

13 


16.  What  does  the  air  in  the  flask  do  as  it  cools? 

17.  Which  is  lighter,  warm  or  cold  air,  when  the  pressure  is  the  same? 

REFERENCES 

A.B.C.M.,  224-227  (q.  4)  Salisbury,  Br.,  40  (q.  4) 

Dryer,  5S  (q.  4)  Salisbury,  El.,  2&-28  (q.  4) 

G.  &  B.,  81  (q.  4)  Tarr,  40  (q.  4) 
Hopkins,  262  (q.  4) 


W 


EXERCISE  II 
INSOLATION.     THE   HEAT  RECEIVED   FROM   THE   SUN 

The  places  chosen  are  the  equator,  the  tropics,  and  the  polar  circles,  at  the  time 
of  the  equinoxes. 

Place  a  sheet  of  cross-section  paper  with  the  punched  edge  toward  you.  About 
the  middle  of  the  paper  draw  a  heavy  line  from  end  to  end  parallel  with  the  punched 
edge.  Let  this  line  represent  the  surface  of  the  earth.  At  the  left  end  of  this  line  place 
a  ruler  across  this  line  at  right  angles  and  draw  a  line  at  each  side  of  the  ruler  from  the 
margin  above  to  the  surface  line.  The  space  between  these  lines  will  represent  a  sun- 
beam at  the  equator  at  the  time  of  the  equinoxes.  Near  this  beam  place  the  same 
ruler  so  as  to  make  an  angle  of  66|°  with  the  surface  line.  Draw  lines  at  each  side 
of  the  ruler  to  represent  a  sunbeam  at  the  tropics  at  the  time  of  the  equinoxes.  Again 
place  the  same  ruler  so  as  to  make  an  angle  of  23^°  with  the  surface  line  and  draw  lines 
at  each  side  of  the  ruler  to  represent  a  sunbeam  at  the  polar  circles  at  the  time  of  the 
equinoxes.     These  sunbeams  are  of  equal  width. 

Beginning  one  centimeter  below  the  surface  line,  draw  a  square  below  the  surface 
line  where  the  equatorial  sunbeam  touches  it,  to  represent  the  area  covered  by  this  sun- 
beam. In  a  similar  way  draw  rectangles  to  represent  the  spaces  covered  by  the  other 
two  sunbeams.  These  will  have  one  side  equal  to  the  side  of  the  square  and  the  other 
side  equal  to  the  length  covered  by  the  beam  on  the  surface  line.  Label  each  beam. 
Color  the  beams  and  the  surface  areas. 

1.  These  sunbeams  are  the  same  size.  Is  the  amount  of  heat  brought  from  the 
sun  by  each  sunbeam  the  same? 

2.  State  the  number  of  small  squares  each  beam  covers  on  the  surface. 

3.  Which  beam  must  heat  the  surface  the  most?     Which  the  least? 

4.  From  the  above  tell  why  the  temperatures  on  the  earth  decrease  from  the  equator 
toward  the  poles. 

Advanced  Work 

This  may  be  done  as  home  work. 

Heat  received  from  the  sun  at  latitude  42°  N.  on  June  21,  March  21,  September  23, 
and  December  22.  On  a  sheet  of  cross-section  paper  draw  the  surface  line  as  above. 
Draw  three  sunbeams,  as  above,  but  at  angles  of  71|°,  48°,  and  24^°.  Draw  rectangles 
below  to  represent  the  surface  areas.     Label  with  the  proper  dates  and  color  as  above. 

5.  State  the  number  of  small  squares  covered  by  the  sunbeam  at  each  date. 

6.  Why,  then,  is  it  warmer  in  Chicago  (latitude  42°)  in  June  than  in  December? 

7.  Compare  the  length  of  day  in  June  and  December  and  give  a  second  reason 
for  June  being  warmer. 

8.  Give  reason  why  the  heat  received  from  the  sun  on  a  clear  day  increases  in  the 
forenoon  and  decreases  in  the  afternoon. 

Note.  Heat  received  from  the  sun  at  any  latitude  may  be  illustrated  in  the  same  manner  as  in 
advanced  work,  by  using  the  angle  for  that  latitude. 

REFERENCES 

A.B.C.M.,  74,  81,  82  Salisbury,  Br.,  334-336 

Dryer,  293,  294  Salisbury,  El.,  227-230 

Hopkins,  6,  388  Tarr,  239,  240 

15 


Ti-iopiTJlun *  <A     .i'  • 


ISOTHERMAL    LINES 


JULY. 


17 


EXERCISE   III 
TEMPERATURE   DISTRIBUTION   OVER  THE  EARTH 
Material.     Isothermal  maps  of  the  world  for  January  and  July,  on  page  17. 

A.     Influence  of  Change  of  Seasons 

1.  Locate  the  isotherms  of  90°  which  enclose  the  three  areas  of  greatest  heat 
on  the  July  map. 

2.  Locate  the  two  areas  of  greatest  heat  on  the  January  map. 

3.  Explain  why  the  position  of  these  heated  areas  is  shifted  every  six  months. 

B.    Influence  of  Land  and  Sea 

4.  Give  the  temperature  for  July  at  the  center  of  North  America,  on  the  fortieth 
parallel. 

5.  Give  the  temperature  for  July  at  the  center  of  the  Atlantic  and  at  the  center 
of  the  Pacific  ocean,  on  the  fortieth  parallel,  north  latitude. 

6.  Which  is,  therefore,  the  warmer  in  summer,  the  land  or  the  sea? 

7.  Give  the  temperature  for  January  at  the  center  of  North  America,  on  the 
fortieth  parallel. 

8.  Give  the  temperature  for  January  at  the  center  of  the  Atlantic  ocean,  and  at 
the  center  of  the  Pacific  on  the  fortieth  parallel  north  latitude. 

9.  Which  is,  therefore,  the  warmer  in  winter,  the  land  or  the  sea? 

10.  Does  the  ocean  or  the  continent  have  the  greater  temperature  range  from 
summer  to  winter? 

C.     Influence  of  Winds 

11.  Give  the  temperature  on  the  July  map  at  the  Atlantic  and  at  the  Pacific  coast 
of  North  America,  on  the  fortieth  parallel. 

12.  Since  most  of  the  wind  comes  from  the  west,  account  for  the  difference. 

13.  Make  the  same  comparison  of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  coasts  on  the  January 
map.     Explain  the  difference. 

D.     Influence  of  Ocean  Currents 

14.  Find  on  both  the  July  and  January  maps  the  temperature  at  the  coast  of  Eng- 
land and  the  temperature  at  the  eastern  coast  of  North  America,  in  the  same  latitude. 
Which  is  the  warmer  in  July?     In  January? 

15.  Find  in  the  same  manner  the  temperatures  at  opposite  sides  of  the  North 
Atlantic  in  latitude  40°.     Which  is  the  warmer  in  July?     In  January? 

16.  Refer  to  the  map  of  ocean  currents  and  account  for  the  difference  in  tempera- 
ture found  on  opposite  sides  of  the  ocean. 


1? 


REFERENCES 


Influence  of  Seasons: 

A.B.C.M.,  88,  89 

Davis,  Figs.  IS,  19,  facing  p.  50 

Dryer,  Figs.  268,  269,  facing  p.  294 

G.  &  B.,  243,  248,  249 

Hopkins,  365 

Salisbury,  Br.,  343,  and  Plates  23,  24 

Salisbury,  El.,  235,  and  Figs.  217,  218 

Tarr,  Figs.  431,  432,  facing  p.  276 

Influence  of  Land  and  Sea: 

A.B.C.M.,  158 

Dryer,  294-296 

G.  &  B.,  245 

Hopkins,  362,  363,  389 

Tarr,  237,  238 


C.  Influence  of  Winds: 
A.B.C.M.,  155 
Davis,  58,  59 
Dryer,  296,  297 

G.  &  B.,  244 
Salisbury,  Br.,  357,  358 
Salisbury,  El.,  249,  250 
Tarr,  193,  195 

D.  Influence  of  Ocean  Currents: 

A.B.C.M.,  map  facing  p.  155, 156, 208, 210, 212, 213 

Dryer,  296,  297 

G.&B..244 

Hopkins,  187 

Salisbury,  Br.,  505 

Salisbury,  El.,  337 

Tarr,  193,  194 


2C 


EXERCISE  IV 

INFLUENCE   OF   LATITUDE   ON   SEASONAL   RANGE   OF   TEMPERATURE 

The  places  chosen  to  study  seasonal  range  are  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  American 
continent  and  are  at  sea  level.  The  difference  in  their  range  of  temperature  is  due  to 
their  different  latitudes. 

Lay  off  a  square,  12  cm.  on  a  side,  in  the  middle  of  a  sheet  of  cross-section  paper. 
Along  the  left  side  of  this  square  place  the  temperatures  from  —20°  to  100°,  beginning 
at  the  bottom  with  —20°.  Use  ten  degrees  for  a  centimeter.  Across  the  top  of  the 
square,  beginning  at  the  left,  on  the  ends  of  the  heavy  lines  one  centimeter  apart,, 
place  the  names  of  the  months,  beginning  with  January  and  ending  with  January. 

Use  the  temperatures  given  in  the  table  and  plot  the  curve  for  the  mouth  of  the 
Amazon  as  follows:  place  a  dot  at  the  proper  temperature  for  each  month,  and  draw 
a  smooth  curve  through  the  dots.  Then  in  the  same  way  draw  the  curves  for  Yucatan, 
New  York,  and  Labrador.     Print  the  name  of  the  place  at  the  end  of  each  curve. 


TABLE 


Place 

Lat. 

Temperature    in  Degbeeb  Fahbe 

NHEIT 

0 
20 
40 
60 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May 

June 

July 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov . 

Dec. 

Jan. 

Mouth  of  the  Amazon  River.  . 
Yucatan 

78 

70 

30 

-10 

79 

72 

31 

-12 

81 

76 

38 

0 

82 

78 
48 
16 

83 
82 
59 
32 

82 
86 
68 
40 

81 

87 
74 
48 

82 
86 

72 
46 

84 
85 
67 
38 

85 
80 
56 
26 

84 
75 
44 
15 

82 

72 
34 
-4 

78 
70 

New  York 

30 

-10 

1.  Give  the  seasonal  range  for  each  place  mentioned  in  the  table. 

2.  As  the  distance  from  the  equator  increases,  does  the  seasonal  range  increase 
or  decrease?     Give  reason. 


REFERENCES 


Dryer,  298,  300 
G.  &  B.,  244 


Salisbury,  Br.,  356 
Salisbury,  El.,  248 


21 


EXERCISE  V 

INFLUENCE   OF   LAND   AND   SEA   ON   SEASONAL  RANGE   OF  TEMPERATURE 

The  cities  chosen  to  show  the  influence  of  land  and  sea  on  seasonal  range  are  situ- 
ated in  about  the  same  latitude,  hence  the  difference  cannot  be  due  to  difference  of 
latitude.  San  Francisco  is  situated  on  the  Pacific  coast.  Owing  to  the  prevailing 
westerly  winds  it  gets  the  sea  influence,  and  hence  its  range  of  temperature  is  really 
that  of  the  Pacific  ocean.  St.  Louis  shows  the  land  influence,  being  situated  in  the 
center  of  a  large  continent. 

Lay  off  a  rectangle,  12  cm.  wide  and  10  cm.  high,  in  the  middle  of  a  sheet  of  cross- 
section  paper.  Along  the  left  side  of  this  rectangle  place  the  temperatures  from  0°  to 
100°,  beginning  at  the  bottom  with  0°.  Use  ten  degrees  for  one  centimeter.  Across 
the  top  of  the  rectangle  place  the  names  of  the  months,  at  the  ends  of  the  heavy  lines. 
Use  one  centimeter  for  one  month.     Begin  with  January  and  end  with  January. 

Use  the  temperatures  given  in  the  table  and  plot  the  curves  for  the  two  cities.  Use 
red  ink  for  one  of  the  curves  or  make  one  curve  a  dotted  line.  Print  the  name  of  the 
city  at  the  end  of  the  curve. 


TABLE 


Place 

Temperature  in  Degrees  Fahrenheit 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May 

June 

July 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Jan. 

50 
31 

51 
34 

53 

44 

54 
56 

56 
66 

57 
75 

57 
79 

58 
77 

59 
70 

58 
58 

55 
43 

51 

36 

50 

St.  Louis 

31 

1.  Which  place  has  the  warmer  summers?     Why? 

2.  Which  place  has  the  warmer  winters?     Why? 

3.  Give  the  seasonal  range  of  temperature  for  each  place. 

4.  Is  the  seasonal  range  greater  where  influenced  by  land  temperatures  or  where 
influenced  by  ocean  temperatures?     Give  reason. 


REFERENCES 


A.B.C.M.,  158 
Dryer,  294,  296 
Hopkins,  362.  363 


Salisbury,  Br.,  340,  356 
Salisbury,  El.,  233,  248 
Tarr,  238 


23 


EXERCISE   VI 

MOISTURE   IN   THE   ATR.     HUMIDITY 
Material.     Hygrometer  (wet  and  dry  bulb  thermometers). 

Note  1.     This  may  be  done  as  a  demonstration  exercise  to  show  the  use  of  the  hygrometer  to  deter- 
mine humidity.     If  thermometers  are  available  the  observations  may  be  made  by  each  pupil. 
Note  2.     See  that  the  wick  on  the  wet  bulb  of  the  hygrometer  is  wet. 

1.  Move  the  instrument  about  or  fan  it  for  a  few  minutes.  Which  thermometer 
shows  the  temperature  of  the  air?     Has  fanning  affected  it? 

2.  Which  thermometer  shows  the  lower  temperature?     Give  reason. 

3.  Write  the  temperature  of  the  dry  bulb  thermometer.  Write  the  temperature 
of  the  wet  bulb  thermometer.     Subtract  and  find  difference. 

4.  Would  this  difference  be  greater  in  dry  air  or  in  damp  air? 

5.  Give  the  reason  for  fanning  the  thermometer. 

6.  Explain  the  effect  of  the  fanning. 

7.  Refer  to  the  humidity  table  on  page  27.  Using  the  observed  air  temperature 
of  the  room  and  the  difference  between  the  dry  and  wet  bulb  thermometers,  give  the 
per  cent  humidity  of  the  schoolroom. 

8.  In  the  same  way  determine  the  humidity  out  of  doors  and  give  your  result. 

9.  Account  for  the  difference  between  the  humidity  indoors  and  the  humidity  out 
of  doors. 

Advanced  Work 

Curve  showing  the  capacity  of  the  air  for  water  vapor  at  different  temperatures. 

Beginning  at  the  lower  left  corner  of  a  sheet  of  cross-section  paper,  write  the  tem- 
peratures along  the  left  margin.  Write  0°  at  the  bottom  and  use  five  degrees  for  each 
centimeter  up  to  95°.  At  the  tops  of  the  vertical  lines  write  the  grains  of  water 
vapor,  beginning  with  zero  at  the  left  and  using  one  grain  for  each  centimeter. 

Plot  the  curve  by  using  the  figures  from  the  table  of  capacities,  on  page  26.  Place 
a  dot  for  the  water  vapor  representing  the  capacity  at  each  temperature  given  in  the 
table.  Draw  a  smooth  curve  through  the  dots.  Color  or  shade  the  space  at  the  left 
of  the  curve.     Number  and  label  the  diagram.  * 

REFERENCES 

A.B.C.M.,  119,  120  Salisbury,  Br.,  364 

Davis,  60,  61  Salisbury,  El.,  255 

Dryer,  280,  2S1,  408,  409  Tarr,  244,  245 
G.  &  B.,  226,  227 


25 


TABLE  TO  SHOW  CAPACITY  OF  AIR  FOR  MOISTURE  AT  DIFFERENT 

TEMPERATURES 


Temperature 

Grains  per  cu.  ft. 

Temperature 

Grains  per  cu.  ft. 

0 

0.5 

50 

4.1 

5 

0.6 

55 

4.9 

10 

0.8 

60 

5.7 

15 

1.0 

65 

6.8 

20 

1.2 

70 

8.0 

25 

1.5 

75 

9.4 

30 

1.9 

80 

10.9 

32 

2.1 

85 

12.8 

35 

2.3 

90 

14.8 

40 

2.8 

95 

17.1 

45 

3.4 

100 

19.8 

26 


TABLE   FOR   FINDING   RELATIVE    III  M  I  DITY  —  Percentages 


Dry 

Therm. 

(Air  Temp.) 

Difference  between  Dry-  and  Wet-bulb  Thermometers 

1 

89 

2 

78 

3 

68 

4 

57 

5 

47 

6 
37 

7 

27 

8 

17 

9 

8 

10 

n 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

'  17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

30 

32 

90 

79 

69 

60 

50 

41 

31 

22 

13 

4 

34 

90 

81 

72 

62 

53 

44 

35 

27 

18 

9 

1 

36 

91 

82 

73 

65 

50 

48 

39 

31 

23 

14 

6 

38 

91 

83 

75 

67 

59 

51 

43 

35 

27 

19 

12 

4 

40 

92 

84 

76 

68 

61 

53 

46 

38 

31 

23 

16 

9 

2 

42 

92 

85 

77 

70 

62 

55 

48 

41 

34 

28 

21 

14 

7 

0 

44 

93 

85 

78 

71 

64 

57 

51 

44 

37 

31 

24 

18 

12 

5 

46 

93 

86 

79 

72 

65 

59 

53 

46 

40 

34 

2S 

22 

10 

10 

4 

48 

93 

87 

80 

73 

67 

60 

54 

48 

42 

36 

31 

25 

19 

14 

8 

3 

50 

93 

87 

81 

74 

68 

62 

56 

50 

44 

39 

33 

28 

22 

17 

12 

7 

2 

— 

— 

— 

— 

52 

94 

88 

81 

75 

69 

63 

58 

52 

46 

41 

36 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

6 

0 

— 

— 

— 

54 

94 

88 

82 

76 

70 

65 

59 

54 

48 

43 

38 

33 

28 

23 

18 

14 

9 

5 

0 

— 

— 

56 

94 

88 

82 

77 

71 

66 

61 

55 

50 

45 

40 

35 

31 

26 

21 

17 

12 

8 

4 

— 

— 

58 

94 

89 

83 

77 

72 

67 

62 

57 

52 

47 

42 

38 

33 

28 

24 

20 

15 

11 

7 

3 

— 

60 

94 

89 

84 

78 

73 

68 

63 

58 

53 

49 

44 

40 

35 

31 

27 

22 

18 

14 

10 

6 

2 

62 

94 

89 

84 

79 

74 

69 

64 

60 

55 

50 

46 

41 

37 

33 

29 

25 

21 

17 

13 

9 

6 

64 

95 

90 

85 

79 

75 

70 

66 

61 

56 

52 

48 

43 

39 

35 

31 

27 

23 

20 

16 

12 

9 

66 

95 

90 

85 

80 

76 

71 

66 

62 

58 

53 

49 

45 

41 

37 

33 

29 

26 

22 

18 

15 

11 

68 

95 

90 

85 

SI 

76 

72 

07 

63 

59 

55 

51 

47 

43 

39 

35 

31 

28 

24 

21 

17 

14 

70 

95 

90 

86 

81 

77 

72 

68 

64 

60 

56 

52 

48 

44 

40 

37 

33 

30 

26 

23 

20 

17 

72 

95 

91 

86 

82 

7S 

73 

69 

65 

61 

57 

53 

49 

46 

42 

39 

35 

32 

28 

25 

22 

19 

74 

95 

91 

86 

82 

78 

74 

70 

66 

62 

58 

54 

51 

47 

44 

40 

37 

34 

30 

27 

24 

21 

76 

96 

91 

87 

83 

78 

74 

70 

67 

63 

59 

55 

52 

48 

45 

42 

38 

35 

32 

29 

26 

23 

78 

96 

91 

87 

83 

79 

75 

71 

67 

64 

60 

57 

53 

50 

46 

43 

40 

37 

34 

31 

28 

25 

80 

96 

91 

87 

83 

79 

76 

72 

68 

64 

61 

57 

54 

51 

47 

44 

41 

38 

35 

32 

29 

27 

82 

96 

91 

87 

83 

79 

76 

72 

69 

65 

62 

58 

55 

52 

49 

46 

43 

40 

37 

34 

31 

28 

S4 

96 

92 

88 

84 

80 

77 

73 

70 

66 

63 

59 

56 

53 

50 

47 

44 

41 

38 

35 

32 

30 

86 

96 

92 

88 

84 

80 

77 

73 

70 

66 

63 

60 

57 

54 

51 

48 

45 

42 

39 

37 

34 

31 

88 

96 

92 

88 

85 

81 

78 

74 

71 

67 

64 

61 

58 

55 

52 

49 

46 

43 

41 

38 

35 

33 

90 

96 

92 

88 

85 

81 

78 

74 

71 

68 

64 

61 

58 

56 

53 

50 

47 

44 

42 

39 

37 

34 

92 

96 

92 

89 

85 

82 

78 

75 

72 

69 

65 

62 

59 

57 

54 

51 

48 

45 

43 

40 

38 

35 

94 

96 

92 

89 

85 

82 

78 

75 

72 

69 

66 

63 

60 

57 

54 

52 

49 

46 

44 

41 

39 

36 

96 

96 

93 

89 

86 

82 

79 

76 

73 

70 

67 

64 

61 

58 

55 

53 

50 

47 

45 

42 

40 

37 

98 

96 

93 

89 

86 

82 

79 

76 

73 

70 

67 

ti-1 

61 

58 

56 

53 

51 

48 

46 

43 

41 

39 

100 

96 

93 

90 

86 

83 

80 

77 

74 

71 

68 

65 

62 

59 

57 

54 

52 

49 

47 

44 

42 

40 

27 


EXERCISE   VII 

THE  MERCURY  BAROMETER  AND  ITS  ACTION.    DEMONSTRATION 

Material  for  A.     A  barometer  tube  over  30  in.  long,  mercury,  small  glass  dish 
glass  funnel  fitted  with  short  rubber  tube,  in  the  other  end  of  which  is  a  glass  tube  drawn 
to  a  fine  point,  iron  stand,  and  clamp. 

Material  for  B.  The  same  as  for  A,  and  Mason  jar,  glass  tubing,  one-hole  rubber 
stopper,  wax,  waxed  string. 

A.     Making  a  Simple  Mercury  Barometer 

Place  the  barometer  tube  on  the  desk,  open  end  up,  and  have  a  pupil  hold  it  in 
position.  Hold  the  funnel  so  the  fine  point  of  the  glass  tube  is  inside  the  bore  of  the 
barometer  tube.  Pour  the  mercury  into  the  funnel  slowly  so  as  to  allow  the  air  to  escape 
as  the  mercury  enters.  Tap  the  tube  lightly  on  the  desk  to  remove  any  air  bubbles. 
When  the  tube  is  full  of  mercury,  tightly  hold  a  finger  over  the  end  and  invert  it  in  the 
small  glass  dish  containing  about  an  inch  of  mercury.  Watch  the  top  of  the  mercury 
in  the  tube  and  remove  the  finger,  being  careful  to  admit  no  air  into  the  tube. 

1.  What  change  took  place  in  the  height  of  the  mercury  when  the  finger  was 
removed? 

2.  Fasten  the  upper  end  of  the  tube  in  the  clamp  of  the  iron  stand.  Measure 
and  tell  the  height  at  which  the  mercury  stands  in  the  tube  above  that  in  the  dish. 

3.  What,  if  anything,  is  in  the  tube  above  the  mercury? 

4.  What  presses  on  the  mercury  in  the  dish? 

5.  State  why  the  mercury  remains  up  in  the  tube. 

6.  If  the  barometer  tube  had  been  an  inch  square,  the  mercury  would  have  stood 
at  the  same  height  as  it  did.  How  many  cubic  inches  of  mercury  would  there  have 
been?  Since  1  cu.  in.  of  mercury  weighs  nearly  \  lb.,  how  many  pounds  of  mercury 
would  be  held  up  in  the  tube? 

7.  Therefore,  what  must  be  the  air  pressure  in  pounds  on  a  square  inch? 

8.  Make  a  sketch,  in  section,  of  the  barometer.  Using  this  sketch,  draw  the 
barometer  as  home  work. 

B.     Action  of  Mercury  Barometer 

Note.  This  apparatus  should  be  prepared  beforehand.  Using  a  waxed  string,  fasten  together  a 
filled  barometer  tube  and  dish,  as  made  in  the  previous  demonstration.  Lower  the  dish  into  a  Mason  jar. 
Cut  *wo  holes  in  the  metal  top,  one  for  the  barometer  tube,  the  other  to  admit  a  rubber  stopper  through 
which  passes  a  short  glass  tube.  Fasten  the  lid  on  the  jar  and  use  wax  or  chewing  gum  to  seal  the  hole 
around  the  barometer  tube.     Place  the  rubber  stopper  containing  the  tube  in  the  other  hole. 

9.  Blow  through  the  glass  tube  into  the  jar.  What  change  takes  place  in  the 
height  of  the  column  of  mercury?     Give  the  reason. 

10.  Draw  air  out  of  the  jar.  What  change  takes  place  in  the  height  of  the  column 
of  mercury?     Give  the  reason. 

11.  Make  a  sketch,  in  section,  of  apparatus  used.  Using  this  sketch,  draw  the 
apparatus  as  home  work. 

29 


REFERENCES 

A.B.C.M.,  92  Hopkins,  352,  353 

Davis,  24-26  Salisbury,  Br.,  374 

Dryer,  275,  276,  400,  401  Salisbury,  EL,  262 

G.  &  B.,  253,  254  Tarr.  421 


30 


en  o       o        O 


EXERCISE   VIII 

PLANETARY  OR  TERRESTRIAL  WINDS 

Material.  Meteorological  (pilot)  charts  of  the  North  Atlantic  and  the  South 
Atlantic  ocean.     Mercator's  map  of  the  world. 

Material  for  advanced  work.  Summer  and  winter  meteorological  (pilot)  charts 
for  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans. 

Note  1.  Before  giving  the  charts  to  pupils,  the  teacher  should  draw  on  each  chart  the  poleward 
boundary  of  the  horse  latitude  belt. 

Note  2.  Much  time  may  be  saved  by  the  teacher  reading  aloud  the  description,  while  the  pupils 
observe  the  chart. 

Note  3.     The  making  of  the  map  may  be  omitted  if  it  is  desired  to  shorten  the  exercise. 

The  unequal  weight  of  the  air  in  different  parts  of  the  world  causes  permanent 
high  pressure  and  low  pressure  areas.  The  movement  of  the  air  from  the  high  pressure 
areas  to  the  low  pressure  areas  gives  rise  to  permanent  winds  which  are  called  planetary 
or  terrestrial  winds.  The  general  character  of  these  wind  belts  may  be  observed  on 
a  meteorological  chart. 

A.     Location  of  Wind  Belts 

1.  On  the  chart  for  the  North  Atlantic,  not  far  from  the  equator,  are  two  dash 
lines.  Between  these  two  lines  is  the  doldrum  belt,  or  equatorial  calms.  It  is  a  belt 
of  permanent  low  pressure.  What  is  the  label  of  the  northern  boundary  of  this 
belt?     Of  the  southern  boundary? 

2.  What  is  the  average  latitude  of  the  line  which  marks  the  northern  boundary 
of  the  doldrums?     On  your  map  of  the  world,  rule  a  horizontal  line  in  this  latitude. 

3.  What  is  the  average  latitude  of  the  line  which  marks  the  southern  boundary 
of  the  doldrums?  Rule  a  line  on  your  map  of  the  world  in  this  latitude.  Between  these 
two  lines,  in  the  Pacific  ocean,  print,  Doldrums. 

4.  The  ocean  is  divided  into  rectangles.  In  the  center  of  each  rectangle  is  a 
wind  rose.  The  arrows  in  the  roses  fly  with  the  wind.  In  the  wind  roses  north  of  the 
doldrum  belt,  on  the  North  Atlantic  chart,  observe  how  long  the  arrows  are  and  that 
the  longest  ones  come  from  the  same  general  direction.  This  is  the  trade  wind  belt. 
What  is  the  average  latitude  of  the  dash  line  which  marks  the  northern  boundary  of 
this  belt?  Rule  a  line  on  your  map  of  the  world  in  this  latitude,  and  in  the  Pacific  ocean, 
between  this  line  and  the  one  previously  drawn,  print,  Trade  Wind  Belt. 

5.  Poleward  of  the  trades  is  the  horse  latitude  belt.  Its  northern  boundary  is 
not  printed  on  the  map.  Your  teacher  has  put  it  in.  Observe  the  wind  roses  just  north 
of  the  trades.  In  the  horse  latitude  belt  the  arrows  do  not  come  from  any  one  direc- 
tion. What  is  the  latitude  of  the  northern  boundary  of  the  horse  latitude  wind  belt? 
Locate  and  label  this  wind  bell  en  your  map  of  the  world. 

6.  The  horse  latitude  belt  is  a  belt  of  permanent  high  pressure.  On  some  charts 
green  lines  forming  closed  curves  indicate  the  average  position  of  this  high  pressure 
area.     Give  the  air  pressure  as  marked  in  inches  by  the  figures  on  the  inside  line. 

7.  Poleward  of  the  horse  latitude  belt  the  arrows  in  the  wind  roses  come  per- 
sistently from  one  direction.  From  what  direction?  This  is  the  belt  of  the  westerlies. 
Its  northern  boundary  is  not  given.     On  your  map  of  the  world,  in  the  space  in  the 

Y3 


Pacific  ocean  poleward  of  the  horse  latitude  belt,  print,  Westerlies.     Do  not  put  in  a 
northern  boundary. 

8.  Observe  the  dash  lines  and  wind  roses  in  the  chart  for  the  South  Atlantic. 
How  does  the  chart  show  that  these  same  wind  belts  exist  in  the  southern  hemisphere? 

9.  For  what  months  is  your  chart  for  the  South  Atlantic  made?  For  what  month 
is  your  chart  for  the  North  Atlantic  made?  The  position  of  the  wind  belts  shifts  as  the 
position  of  the  heat  equator  shifts.  If  we  wish  to  observe  the  location  of  the  wind  belts 
in  both  hemispheres  for  some  month,  we  should  have  charts  of  both  oceans  for  that 
month.  On  the  lower  right  corner  of  your  world  map  print  the  name  of  the  month 
for  which  your  chart  of  the  North  Atlantic  was  made. 

B.     Per  Cent  of  Time  Calm 

10.  Observe  the  figures  in  the  centers  of  the  roses  in  the  several  belts  on  the  charts. 
These  figures  give  the  per  cent  of  time  when  it  is  calm.     Which  belt  has  the  most  calm? 

11.  Which  belt  has  the  next  most  calm? 

12.  Which  belt  has  the  least  calm? 

C.     Direction  of  Wind 

13.  On  the  North  Atlantic  chart  choose  a  wind  rose  from  the  doldrum  belt.  One 
which  shows  arrows  coming  from  many  directions  is  typical.  On  your  map  of  the  world 
copy  this  rose  in  the  doldrum  belt,  in  the  Atlantic  ocean.  Do  the  same  for  the  trade 
wind  belt,  choosing  a  rose  where  the  arrows  are  long  and  from  one  general  direction. 
Do  the  same  for  the  horse  latitude  belt,  choosing  a  rose  where  the  arrows  come  from 
no  one  direction.  Do  the  same  for  the  westerlies,  choosing  a  rose  where  the  arrows 
come  mostly  from  one  direction.  The  side  of  the  wind  rose  on  which  the  arrows  are  the 
longest  is  the  direction  from  which  the  prevailing  wind  comes.  If  the  arrows  come 
from  all  directions,  there  is  no  prevailing  wind  in  that  belt;  the  winds  are  variable. 
From  which  direction  do  the  prevailing  winds  blow  in 

(a)  The  doldrum  belt? 

(6)  The  northern  trade  wind  belt? 

(c)  The  southern  trade  wind  belt? 

(d)  The  horse  latitude  belts? 

(e)  The  northern  westerly  belt? 
(/)  The  southern  westerly  belt? 

D.     Constancy  and  Strength  of  Wind 

14.  The  arrows  coming  into  the  center  of  the  wind  roses  have  different  lengths; 
the  longer  lines  show  the  direction  from  which  the  wind  blows  a  greater  number  of  hours. 
These  are  the  more  constant  winds.  Which  belt  has  the  most  constant  winds?  On 
your  map  of  the  world  draw  a  few  long  arrows  flying  with  the  wind  in  this  belt.  Mark 
the  doldrum  belt  with  a  few  small  circles.  Mark  the  horse  latitude  belt  with  a  few 
small  crosses.  Show  the  winds  in  the  westerly  belt  with  a  few  short  arrows.  Locate 
the  southern  trade  wind  belt,  making  it  tin  same  width  as  the  northern  trade  wind  belt. 
Label  and  indicate  winds.  Locate  the  southern  horse  latitude  belt.  Label  and  mark 
with  crosses.     Locate  the  southern  westerlies.     Label  and  indicate  winds. 

34 


15.  The  number  of  feathers  at  the  ends  of  the  arrows  shows  the  average  velocity 
of  the  wind.  Each  feather  stands  for  five  or  six  miles  per  hour.  Thus  three  feathers 
mean  that  the  wind  blows  about  fifteen  miles  per  hour.  One  and  two  feathers  mean 
light  winds;  three  to  six  feathers,  good  sailing  winds;  seven  or  more  feathers  meaii 
gales  or  storms.  Do  belts  near  the  equator  have  stronger  or  lighter  winds  than  belts 
far  from  the  equator? 

Advanced  Work 

16.  Compare  a  summer  chart  with  a  winter  chart,  noticing  the  position  of  the 
wind  belts  on  each.     Which  wind  belts  change  position  the  most? 

17.  Why  do  the  wind  belts  change  position? 

18.  In  the  Pacific  ocean,  how  does  seasonal  migration  of  belts  differ  from  migration 
in  the  Atlantic? 

19.  Do  the  belts  migrate  more  near  land  or  in  mid-ocean? 

20.  Give  the  reason  for  this  difference. 


EXERCISE    IX 


MAP   OF  PLANETARY   WIND   BELTS 


Use  a  blank  map  of  the  world.  Represent  the  average  position  of  the  wind  belts  by 
drawing  the  boundaries  at  the  parallels  of  5°,  30°,  and  35°  north  and  south  latitudes. 
The  belt  between  the  5°  lines  will  be  the  doldrums  and,  in  each  hemisphere,  that  between 
5°  and  30°  the  belt  of  trade  winds;  that  between  30°  and  35°  the  horse  latitudes;  and 
that  beyond  35°  in  each  hemisphere  the  belt  of  westerly  winds. 

Indicate  the  winds  in  each  belt,  using  long  arrows  to  represent  the  trade  winds, 
short  arrows  the  westerlies,  small  circles  the  doldrums,  and  small  crosses  the  horse  lati- 
tudes. Work  rapidly  and  do  not  crowd  the  symbols.  Print  the  name  in  each  wind 
belt. 

1.  Is  the  doldrum  belt  a  belt  of  high  or  low  pressure? 

2.  Is  the  air  in  the  doldrum  belt  rising  or  sinking? 

3.  Explain  why  the  doldrum  region  is  a  belt  of  calms.  In  this  belt  sailors  say, 
"  The  wind  blows  up  the  mast." 

4.  Are  the  horse  latitudes  belts  of  high  or  of  low  pressure? 

5.  Is  the  air  in  the  horse  latitude  belts  rising  or  sinking?  In  these  belts  the  sailors 
say,  "  The  wind  blows  down  the  mast." 

6.  Tell  why  the  horse  latitudes  are  belts  of  calms. 

7.  Tell  why  the  trade  winds  blow  toward  the  doldrum  belt. 

8.  By  what  influence  are  the  trade  winds  turned  from  a  straight  north  and  south 
course? 

9.  Why  do  the  westerlies  in  each  hemisphere  blow  away  from  the  horse  latitudes? 

REFERENCES 

A.B.C.M.,  150-153  Hopkins,  368-370 

Davis,  53-56  Salisbury,  Br.,  386,  388,  391,  395 

Dryer,  306-311  Salisbury,  El.,  272,  274,  277 

G.  &  B.,  258,  259,  260,  262,  266  Tarr,  Fig.  40S,  facing  p.  258,  258-262 


39 

1  (S8452 


EXERCISE  X 

WINDS  AND   CURRENTS 

Use  the  map  of  winds  and  currents,  on  page  41. 

1.  Find  and  state  what  is  the  general  direction  of  the  water  movement  in  each 
ocean  in  the  trade  wind  belts.     Look  hi  both  northern  and  southern  oceans. 

2.  Give  reason  for  the  movement  stated  in  question  1. 

3.  Find  whether  the  water  in  the  trade  wind  belts  turns  toward  the  pole  or  toward 
the  equator  when  it  strikes  the  east  side  of  the  continents. 

(a)  In  which  direction  does  it  turn  in  the  North  Atlantic? 

(b)  In  which  direction  does  it  turn  in  the  South  Atlantic? 

(c)  In  which  direction  does  it  turn  in  the  North  Pacific? 

(d)  In  which  direction  does  it  turn  in  the  South  Pacific? 

(e)  As  a  rule  does  it  turn  toward  the  pole  or  toward  the  equator? 

4.  What  is  the  general  direction  of  the  movement  of  the  water  in  each  northern  and 
southern  ocean  in  the  belts  of  westerly  winds? 

5.  Give  reason  for  the  movement  stated  in  question  4. 

6.  Give  the  name  of  the  eastward  moving  current  in  the  North  Atlantic. 

7.  Give  the  name  of  the  westward  moving  current  in  the  North  Atlantic. 

8.  Give  the  names  of  the  eastward  moving  and  westward  moving  currents  in  the 
North  Pacific. 

REFERENCES 

A.B.C.M.,  208-211  Hopkins,  1S5,  map  on  p.  186,  and  map  following  p.  368 

Davis,  115-118  Salisbury,  Br.,  501-504 

Dryer,  256,  257,  267-269  Salisbury,  El.,  334,  337 

G.  &  B.,  295-297  Tarr,  190-193,  Fig.  338,  facing  p.  194,  anct  Fig.  408,  facing  p.  258 


43 


EXERCISE  XI 

STUDY   OF  THE  WEATHER   MAP 

Material.  Several  weather  maps  for  each  pupil,  including  a  map  with  a  well 
developed  LOW  area  and  one  with  a  well  developed  HIGH  area.  In  many  cities  pupils 
may  obtain  these  for  themselves  from  the  daily  papers. 

1.  Read  the  explanations  in  the  lower  left  corner  of  the  map.  Tell  for  what 
degrees  of  temperature  isotherms  are  drawn. 

2.  Choose  one  of  your  maps  and  tell  what  is  the  lowest  barometer  reading  shown 
by  an  isobar.  Tell  the  highest.  Before  drawing  the  isobars,  corrections  were  made  in 
the  barometer  readings  for  temperature  and  for  elevation. 

3.  Find  a  LOW  area  with  a  large  number  of  isobars  curving  around  the  word 
LOW.  The  area  so  included  is  the  area  of  low  pressure  or  temperate  latitude  cyclone. 
How  many  states  does  this  area  cover? 

4.  Give  the  air  pressure  (barometer  reading)  at  the  center  of  the  LOW  area. 

5.  How  much  would  a  barometer  fall  in  being  carried  from  the  outer  isobar  to  the 
center  of  this  area? 

6.  Find  a  HIGH  area  with  a  large  number  of  isobars  curving  around  the  word 
HIGH.  The  area  so  included  is  the  area  of  HIGH  pressure  or  anticyclone.  Give  the 
pressure  at  the  center. 

7.  How  much  would  a  barometer  rise  in  being  carried  from  the  outer  isobar  to 
the  center  of  this  area? 

8.  Choose  a  map,  tell  its  date,  and  give,  for  your  locality,  the  temperature,  barom- 
eter reading,  direction  of  wind,  state  of  sky,  and  kind  of  precipitation,  if  any. 

REFERENCES 

A.B.C.M.,  146  Hopkins,  390-393 

Davis,  82,  90  Salisbury,  Br.,  403-424 

Dryer,  318,  410  Salisbury,  EL,  2S3-296 

G.  &  B.,  254-258  Tarr,  426,  427 


EXERCISE   XII 

THE   TEMPERATE   LATITUDE   CYCLONE   AND   ANTICYCLONE 

Material.     A  series  of  weather  maps  of  consecutive  days  for  each  pupil.     If  pos- 
sible, have  maps  for  a  month,  bound  together,  for  each. 

Note.     In  studying  LOW  and  HIGH  areas  select  those  having  the  most  isobars  around  them. 

A.     Wind 

1.  Does  the  wind  blow  toward  the  LOW  area  or  away  from  it? 

2.  Does  the  wind  blow  toward  the  HIGH  area  or  away  from  it? 
These  LOW  and  HIGH  areas  move  toward  the  east. 

3.  Give  the  wind  changes  at  your  locality  as  a  LOW  area  approaches  and  passes 
over  it.  (Draw  an  east-west  line  on  a  map  having  a  LOW  area  near  your  locality, 
and  study  the  arrows  along  this  line.) 

B.     Temperature 

4.  Find  the  temperature  of  the  center  of  several  LOW  areas  near  your  locality. 
Find  the  temperature  for  several  HIGH  areas  in  the  same  location  and  for  the 

same  month.     Write  the  temperatures  in  note-book,  and  find  the  average  tempera- 
ture of  the  LOWS  and  of  the  HIGHS. 

5.  Tell  which  are  the  colder  and  how  many  degrees  on  the  average. 

6.  Tell  how  the  temperature  changes  as  a  LOW  area  approaches  and  passes 
over  your  locality. 

7.  Would  the  approach  of  a  HIGH  area  bring  warmer  or  colder  weather? 

C.  State  of  the  Sky  and  Rainfall 

8.  Is  the  sky  in  the  LOW  areas  mostly  clear  or  cloudy? 

9.  Is  the  sky  in  the  HIGH  areas  mostly  clear  or  cloudy? 

10.  Would  the  approach  of  a  LOW  or  of  a  HIGH  area  bring  cloudiness  and  rain? 
Which  would  bring  clear  skies? 

D.  Storm  Movement  and  Forecast 

11.  Follow  the  same  LOW  area  in  maps  of  several  successive  days.  Tell  in  what 
general  direction  it  seems  to  move. 

12.  Follow  the  same  HIGH  area  in  maps  of  several  successive  days.  Tell  in  what 
general  direction  it  seems  to  move. 

13.  If  the  center  of  a  LOW  area  were  about  three  hundred  miles  west  of  you  and 
its  outer  isobar  reached  your  locality,  from  what  direction  would  you  expect  the  wind 
to  blow  during  the  next  twelve  hours?  Would  you  expect  the  temperature  to  rise  or 
fall?     What  kind  of  sky?     Any  rain? 


47 


14.  If  the  center  of  a  LOW  were  at  your  locality,  from  what  direction  would 
you  expect  the  wind  to  blow  during  the  next  twelve  hours?  What  temperature 
change  would  you  expect?     What  change  in  the  sky? 

REFERENCES 

A.B.C.M.,  142,  145  Hopkins,  386,  389 

Davis,  81  Salisbury,  Br.,  404-424 

Dryer,  312-318  Salisbury,  EL,  284-299 

G.  &  B.,  258,  259  Tarr,  262-266 


48 


EXERCISE  XIII 

VISIT  TO   THE   UNITED   STATES   WEATHER  BUREAU  FORECASTING   STATION 

Note.  This  exercise  is  written  for  visits  to  the  office  of  the  Weather  Bureau  in  Chicago.  Similar 
visits  may  doubtless  be  arranged  for  in  other  cities. 

Classes  of  twenty  to  twenty-five  are  allowed  to  visit  the  office  of  the  Weather 
Bureau  on  the  fourteenth  floor  of  the  Federal  Building,  but  arrangements  must  be 
made  beforehand  and  permission  secured.  The  teacher  must  accompany  the  class. 
This  exercise  is  to  be  written  up  at  home  and  handed  in  the  following  day. 

A.     The  Instruments 

1.  Name  the  instruments  on  top  of  the  dome.  Which  can  be  seen  from  the  street? 
All  of  these  write  a  record  on  the  meteorograph  inside. 

2.  Name  the  instruments  in  the  shelter  and  on  the  roof  of  the  north  wing.  Which 
of  these  write  a  record  on  the  meteorograph?  Which  others  are  electricahv  connected 
to  instruments  on  the  inside? 

3.  What  instruments  are  kept  inside  and  have  no  outside  connections?  Do  not 
name  those  which  are  only  duplicates  of  those  on  the  outside. 

4.  Describe  the  meteorograph. 

5.  Observe  the  barometer  or  the  barograph  and  tell  how  much  higher  or  lower  it 
reads  than  your  school  barometer  today,  and  why.  An  aneroid  barometer  may  be 
carried  by  the  teacher  and  the  change  of  reading  in  going  up  or  down  in  the  elevator 
may  be  noticed  by  the  class. 

B.     Making  the  Weather  Map 

6.  Describe  the  chalk  plate  process  of  making  the  weather  map. 

7.  At  what  hour  are  the  observations  taken  that  are  used  in  making  the  map? 

8.  At  how  many  stations  are  these  observations  made? 

9.  Tell  how  the  observations  are  sent  from  the  stations  to  Chicago.  Tell  how 
they  are  delivered  to  the  fourteenth  floor  of  the  Federal  Building. 

10.  What  items  of  printed  matter  are  found  on  the  lower  half  of  each  weather 
map? 

C.     Forecasting 

11.  What  charts  are  made  by  hand  in  the  forecasting  room? 

12.  For  how  long  a  time  in  advance  are  the  forecasts  made? 

13.  Tell  how  the  forecaster  knows  what  weather  to  forecast  for  Chicago. 

14.  Name  the  states  for  which  a  forecast  is  made  at  the  Chicago  forecasting  sta- 
tion.    These  are  named  in  the  forecast  of  a  weather  map. 

15.  Give  the  forecast  for  tomorrow.     Tell  why  you  think  this  is  a  correct  forecast. 


40 


EXERCISE   XIV 
DISTRIBUTION   OF  RAINFALL   IN   THE  UNITED   STATES 

Material.     Rainfall  Map  of  the  United  States,  on  page  51. 

On  this  map  the  amount  of  annual  rainfall  is  indicated  by  the  shading. 

1.  What  two  extreme  parts  of  the  United  States  have  an  annual  rainfall  over 
60  inches? 

2.  Give  the  reason  for  it  in  each  of  these  regions. 

3.  Twenty  inches  of  rainfall  are  necessary  for  agriculture,  without  irrigation. 
Does  the  plateau  region,  from  central  Nebraska  to  California,  receive  more  or  less  than 
this  amount?  Irrigation  is  practised  in  many  places  in  the  plateau  region.  The  sup- 
ply of  water  for  this  purpose  comes  from  mountain  streams. 

4.  Find  several  small  areas  which  have  a  heavier  rainfall  than  their  surround- 
ings.    Are  these  areas  higher  or  lower  than  the  land  around  them? 

5.  Name  the  states,  from  north  to  south,  crossed  by  the  twenty-inch  rainfall 
line,  near  the  one  hundredth  meridian. 

6.  Is  irrigation  necessary  east  of  this  line?  This  part  of  the  United  States  is 
called  the  lowland  region,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  higher  land  west. 

7.  What  change  in  rainfall  do  you  notice  along  an  imaginary  line  extending  from 
Minnesota  to  Florida? 

8.  Give  reasons  for  the  heavier  rainfall  of  the  lowland  region.  Why  should  it 
increase  toward  the  southeast? 

9.  Is  the  plateau  region  or  the  lowland  region  th.e  better  for  agriculture?  Why? 
Which  is  the  more  thickly  settled? 

10.  From  the  map  give  approximately  the  rainfall  of  New  York;  of  Chicago;  of 
New  Orleans;  of  Denver. 

Advanced  Work 

11.  Tell  why  the  rainfall  of  the  Pacific  coast  states  decreases  toward  the  south. 
Consult  map  of  wind  belts  which  you  made  and  see  in  which  wind  belts  the  coast  is 
situated. 

12.  Does  the  northern  or  southern  half  of  the  plateau  region  receive  the  more 
rainfall?     Give  reason.     Consult  map  of  wind  belts. 

REFERENCES 
A.B.C.M.,  175-177  Hopkins,  386 

Davis,  72-74  Salisbury,  Br.,  134,  137,  400,  401 

Dryer,  343-347  Salisbury,  El.,  279-281,  Fig.  92,  p.  89,  Figs.  94,  95,  p.  91 

G.  &  B.,  231-233  Tarr,  Fig.  445,  facing  p.  289 


53 


EXERCISE  XV 

MONTHLY    AND    SEASONAL    RAINFALL    IN    THE    CLIMATIC    REGIONS    OF    THE 

UNITED    STATES 

The  table  gives  the  average  rainfall  by  months  for  a  large  number  of  years,  at 
Chicago,  New  Orleans,  Yuma,  and  Los  Angeles. 

Chicago  is  representative  of  the  northern  part  of  the  United  States  east  of  the 
Mississippi.  It  enjoys  a  moderate  rainfall,  distributed  nearly  evenly,  with  a  slightly 
larger  amount  in  the  growing  summer  months. 

New  Orleans  represents  the  southern  part  of  the  United  States  east  of  Texas  and 
shows  a  much  heavier  rainfall,  month  by  month,  than  Chicago. 

Yuma,  Arizona,  is  in  the  plateau  region  and  shows  a  very  scanty  rainfall.  It  is 
typical  of  desert  conditions. 

Los  Angeles  represents  the  southern  part  of  the  Pacific  coast,  and  shows  the  wet 
winter  season  and  the  dry  summer  season,  when  not  a  trace  of  rain  falls  for  more 
than  two  months. 

Place  a  sheet  of  cross-section  paper  with  the  punched  edge  at  the  left.  Divide 
into  four  parts  by  drawing  horizontal  lines.  Make  the  two  upper  parts  seven  centi- 
meters wide,  up  and  down,  and  the  two  lower  parts  four  centimeters  wide.  Across  the 
top  of  the  sheet,  in  the  centimeter  spaces,  print  the  names  of  the  months,  leaving  two 
centimeters  at  the  left  unused.  Begin  and  end  with  January.  Use  the  figures  given 
in  the  table  and  represent  the  Chicago  rainfall  in  the  part  of  the  sheet  at  the  top.  Be- 
ginning at  zero  on  the  line  you  have  drawn,  number  the  centimeters  at  the  left  side  of 
the  January  columns.  For  each  month's  rainfall  make  a  column  one  centimeter  wide 
and  as  high  as  the  month  has  inches  of  rainfall.     Let  one  centimeter  equal  one  inch. 

In  the  same  way  represent  the  rainfall  at  New  Orleans  on  the  part  of  the  sheet 
below  that  used  for  Chicago.  Use  the  third  part  of  the  sheet  for  Yuma  and  the  part 
at  the  bottom  for  Los  Angeles.  In  each  part  of  the  sheet  print  the  name  of  the  city  at 
the  right  side.    Shade  or  color  the  columns. 

TABLE  OF  RAINFALL.  AVERAGE  FOR  FORTY  YEARS 


Place 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May 

June 

July 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Jan. 

Total 

Chicago 

2.0 
4.6 
0.4 

2.8 

2.2 
4.5 
0.6 
2.9 

2.5 
5.3 
0.4 
3.0 

2.9 
4.9 
0.1 
1.1 

3.4 
3.9 
0.0 
0.5 

3.7 
6.2 
0.0 
0.1 

3.6 
6.5 
0.1 
0.0 

2.9 
5.6 
0.3 
0.0 

3.0 

4.8 
0.2 
0.1 

2.6 
2.9 
0.2 
0.8 

2.5 
3.8 
0.3 
1.5 

2.0 

4.5 
0.5 
2.9 

2.0 
4.6 
0.4 
2.8 

35.3 

New  Orleans 

62.1 
3  1 

Los  Angeles 

18.6 

REFERENCES 


A.B.C.M.,  Fig.  78,  facing  p.  175 
Davis,  72-74 
Dryer,  343-347 


G.  &  B.,  231-233 
Salisbury,  Br.,  400,  401 
Salisbury,  El.,  279-  281 


55 


Map  of  World,   Showing  Mean  Annual  Rainfall 


Map  of  Vegetation  Regions  of  the  World 
57 


EXERCISE   XVI 
INFLUENCE   OF   RAINFALL  ON  VEGETATION 
Material.     Maps  of  rainfall  and  vegetation  regions  found  on  page  57. 

A.     Equatorial  Belt  or  Doldrums 

1.  Look  on  the  rainfall  map  and  tell  whether  the  rainfall  is  heavy  or  light  on 
lands  near  the  equator. 

2.  Is  the  air  rising  or  sinking  here? 

3.  Give  reasons  for  the  amount  of  rainfall. 

4.  Is  much  or  little  of  this  land  covered  with  forests?     Forests  require  much 
rainfall. 

5.  What  continents  have  extensive  forests  in  this  belt? 

B.  Trade  Wind  Belts 

"3.   Look  zt  the  west  coast  of  lands  from  15°  to  35°  north  and  south  latitude. 
Do  these  coasts  receive  much  or  little  rainfall? 

7.  Look  at  the  east  coasts  in  the  same  latitudes  and  tell  whether  they  receive 
much  or  little  rainfall. 

8.  Explain  the  rainfall  noted  in  your  answers  to  questions  6  and  7. 

9.  Is  much  or  little  of  the  land  in  the  trade  wind  belts  covered  with  forests? 

10.  Locate  four  or  more  deserts  in  these  belts. 

11.  Explain  the  occurrence  of  these  deserts. 

C.  Westerly  Wind  Belts 

12.  Look  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  north  of  latitude  40°.     Tell  whether  the 
rainfall  increases  or  decreases  from  the  west  coast  toward  the  interiors  of  the  continents. 

13.  What  countries  have  a  heavy  rainfall  on  the  west  coast?     Why? 

14.  Find  the  forest  regions  in  this  belt  and  name  the  continents  across  which  they 
extend. 

15.  Is  there  much  or  little  agricultural  land  in  this  belt  in  North  America?     In 
Europe?     In  Asia? 

16.  What  continents  in  the  southern  hemisphere  extend  into  the  westerly  belt? 

17.  Why  is  the  coast  of  Chili  forested? 

18.  Has  Australia  more  pasture  land  or  agricultural  land?     Why? 

REFERENCES 

A.B.C.M.,  159,  175,  177,  280-282  Hopkins,  400-411 

Davis,  70-72  Salisbury,  Br.,  397^01 

Dryer,  353-359  Salisbury,  El.,  277-282 

G.  &  B.,  319-328  Tarr,  337-345 


59 


EXERCISE  XVII 

PARALLELS   AND   MERIDIANS 

Material.     Six  inch  globes. 

1.  Parallels  are  circles  around  the  earth  parallel  with  the  equator.  Are  the  par- 
allels larger  circles  near  the  equator  or  near  the  poles? 

2.  Give  the  direction  in  which  parallels  extend. 

3.  There  are  90°  of  latitude  between  the  equator  and  either  pole.  How  many 
degrees  wide  are  the  spaces  between  the  parallels  on  your  globe?  Pay  no  attention  to 
the  tropics  or  the  polar  circles,  but  include  the  space  between  the  pole  and  the  parallel 
next  to  it. 

4.  Places  far  from  the  equator  are  in  high  latitude;  those  near  the  equator  are  in 
low  latitude.  Name  the  two  points  on  the  globe  which  have  the  highest  latitude.  Give 
the  latitude  of  these  places  in  degrees. 

5.  Using  your  globe,  give  the  latitude  of 

Chicago,  Rio  Janeiro, 

Philadelphia,  London, 

San  Francisco,  Manila. 

In  each  case  state  whether  the  latitude  is  north  or  south  of  the  equator. 

6.  Meridians  are  half-circles  extending  from  pole  to  pole.  Give  the  direction  in 
which  meridians  extend. 

7.  In  the  circumference  of  the  globe  there  are  360°.  How  many  degrees  wide  are 
the  spaces  between  the  meridians  upon  your  globe? 

8.  Longitude  is  measured  east  and  west  from  the  prime  meridian,  which  passes 
through  London,  England.     Using  your  globe,  give  the  longitude  of 

Chicago,  Rio  Janeiro, 

Philadelphia,  London, 

San  Francisco,  Manila. 

In  each  case  state  whether  the  longitude  is  east  or  west. 

9.  Parallels  and  meridians  are  used  to  find  the  location  of  places.  What  penin- 
sula is  at  latitude  20°  N.,  and  longitude  90°  W.? 

REFERENCES 

Davis,  8-10  Salisbury,  Br.,  311 

Dryer,  23,  24  Salisbury,  EL,  207-209 

G.  &  B.,  3  Tarr,  402-404 

Note.  The  questions  of  this  exercise  may  be  adapted  by  the  teacher  to  the  study  of  parallels 
and  meridians  on  map  of  the  world,  p.  31.     Also  to  text  book  maps  on  a  globular  projection. 


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EXERCISE  XVIII 

STANDARD   TIME 

1.  On  an  outline  map  of  the  United  States  draw  lines  with  red  ink  or  crayon  along 
the  meridians  of  75°,  90°,  105°,  and  120°  west  longitude.  Let  each  line  stop  at  the 
edge  of  the  continent.  The  lines  drawn  are  the  standard  meridians.  They  are  15° 
apart.  The  earth  rotates  through  360°  in  24  hours,  or  through  15°  in  one  hour. 
Therefore  the  time  of  a  standard  meridian  differs  by  one  hour  from  the  time  of  the  next 
standard  meridian  on  either  side.  Each  standard  meridian  gives  the  time  to  the  entire 
belt  of  which  it  is  the  center. 

2.  The  dividing  lines  between  standard  time  belts  are  irregular.  They  pass 
through  certain  places  where  railroad  divisions  end. 

(a)  Between  the  Intercolonial  and  Eastern  time  belts  the  dividing  line  passes 
along  the  eastern  boundary  of  Maine.     Draw  this  line  in  ink,  making  the  line  heavy. 

(b)  Draw  the  line  between  the  Eastern  and  Central  time  belts  from  Buffalo,  N.  Y., 
to  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  Atlanta,  Ga.,  Augusta,  Ga.,  Savannah,  Ga. 

(c)  Draw  the  line  between  the  Central  and  Mountain  time  belts  from  Williston, 
N.  Dak.,  to  Bismarck,  N.  Dak.,  North  Platte,  Neb.,  Dodge,  Kan.,  El  Paso,  Tex. 

(d)  Draw  the  line  between  the  Mountain  and  Pacific  time  belts  from  longitude 
116°  W.,  at  top  of  map,  to  Boise,  Id.,  Carson  City,  Nev.,  El  Paso,  Tex. 

3.  On  the  map  print  the  names  of  the  time  belts,  Intercolonial  Time  (east  of  Maine); 
Eastern  Time;  Central  Time;  Mountain  Time;  Pacific  Time. 

4.  Write  12  o'clock,  noon,  on  the  75th  meridian.  On  each  of  the  other  standard 
meridians  write  the  time  that  meridian  has  when  it  is  noon  at  the  75th  meridian. 

5.  Color  or  shade  the  time  belts  within  the  United  States. 

REFERENCES 

A.B.C.M.,  24,  27  Salisbury,  Br.,  313 

Dryer,  Supplement,  IX  Salisbury,  El.,  210,  211 

G.  &  B.,  26  Tarr,  404 

Hopkins,  31,  32 


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EXERCISE  XIX 

STUDY   OF   THE   MOST   COMMON   MINERALS 

Material.  Steel  rods,  sharpened  at  one  end  (half  of  a  knitting  needle  serves  well), 
pieces  of  window  glass  about  three  inches  square,  the  sharp  edges  of  which  have  been 
removed,  dilute  hydrochloric  acid,  droppers  or  stirring  rods,  specimens  of  quartz, 
calcite,  feldspar,  hornblende,  mica.  If  possible  study  different  varieties  of  quartz, 
feldspar,  and  mica. 

Note  1.  Each  mineral  should  be  labeled  before  giving  to  the  pupil.  Emphasize  the  ways  of  dis- 
tinguishing quartz,  calcite,  and  feldspar  from  each  other;  and  of  distinguishing  hornblende  from  mica. 

Note  2.     The  pupil  will  write  his  observations  upon  each  mineral,  using  the  table  given  on  page  67. 

1.  Color  or  colors  of  the  mineral. 

2.  Transparency  of  the  mineral:  (a)  Like  window  glass,  transparent;  (6)  like  frosted 
or  milky  glass,  translucent;  (c)  like  steel,  letting  no  light  through,  opaque. 

3.  Hardness  of  the  mineral:  (a)  very  soft,  may  be  scratched  by  thumb  nail.  Mica 
is  a  very  soft  mineral.  (6)  Soft,  easily  scratched  by  a  steel  rod.  Calcite  is  a  soft  min- 
eral, (c)  Hard,  with  difficulty  scratched  by  a  steel  rod.  Feldspar  is  a  hard  mineral. 
(d)  Very  hard,  cannot  be  scratched  by  a  steel  rod.  Quartz  is  a  very  hard  mineral. 
Minerals  as  hard  as  quartz  will  scratch  a  piece  of  glass. 

4.  Action  of  acid  upon  the  mineral:  Put  a  drop  of  hydrochloric  acid  upon  the  min- 
eral.    If  bubbles  of  gas  are  formed  this  shows  that  the  mineral  is  dissolving  rapidly. 

5.  Cleavage:  Are  there  somewhat  regular  lines  along  which  the  mineral  would 
split  more  easily  than  in  other  directions?  Minerals  that  split  more  or  less  easily  in 
certain  directions  or  planes  are  said  to  have  cleavage.     Mica  and  calcite  have  cleavage. 

REFERENCES 
A.B.C.M.,  246,  247  Hopkins,  239-244 

Dryer,  35,  Supplement,  XX- XXI 1 1  Tarr,  406-408 


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EXERCISE  XX 
STUDY   OF  THE   MOST   COMMON   ROCKS 

Material.  Steel  rods,  window  glass,  dilute  hydrochloric  acid,  droppers  or  stirring 
rods,  specimens  of  limestone,  marble,  shale,  slate,  sandstone,  granite.  Hand  magni- 
fiers are  desirable. 

Note  1.  A  rock  consists  of  a  mixture  of  minerals,  but  in  some  cases  it  is  a  very  large  mass  of  a  single 
mineral. 

Note  2.  The  minerals  of  which  a  rock  is  composed  are  the  grains  in  the  rock.  What  these  minerals 
are  may  be  found  by  testing  their  grains,  as  in  Exercise  XIX. 

Note  3.  Shale  and  slate  are  made  of  grains  of  clay.  The  other  rocks  given  are  composed  of  minerals 
already  studied. 

Study  the  rocks  named  in  the  table  on  page  71,  and  fill  the  blanks  opposite  the  name 
of  each  rock. 

REFERENCES 
A.B.C.M.,  253-259  Salisbury,  Br.,  520 

Dryer,  31-36  Salisbury,  El.,  350 

G.  &  B.,  74-78  Tarr,  409-413 

Hopkins,  255-262 


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EXERCISE   XXI 

DELTA   TABLE   STUDY.     DEMONSTRATION 

Material.  Delta  table,  sand,  clay,  stones,  sprayer  (a  whitewash  sprayer  is  the 
best). 

On  the  delta  table  put  clay  with  sand  at  several  places,  and  use  the  stones  to 
represent  hard  layers.  Arrange  the  sand  so  as  to  represent  a  nearly  level  land  surface, 
sloping  toward  the  basin  of  the  delta  table.  Have  springs,  issuing  from  tubes,  come 
to  the  surface  at  several  points.  Allow  the  streams  from  the  springs  to  cut  valleys. 
Later  use  the  fine  spray  and  notice  the  change  of  slope  of  the  valley  sides. 

A.  The  Work  of  Running  Water 

1.  What  determines  the  course  of  the  streams? 

2.  Do  the  streams  join  into  one  main  stream?     Why? 

3.  Are  the  streams  straight  or  crooked?  Do  they  become  more  crooked,  or  less 
so  as  the  action  continues? 

4.  When  the  springs  supply  all  the  water,  are  the  slopes  of  the  valley  sides  steep 
or  gentle? 

5.  How  does  the  spray  (rain)  change  the  slope  of  the  valley  sides? 

6.  Do  swift  streams  or  slow  streams  deepen  their  valleys  the  more  rapidly? 

7.  Is  the  stream  more  active  in  cutting  at  the  inside  or  at  the  outside  of  the  bends? 

8.  What  effect  has  this  side  cutting  on  the  width  of  the  valley? 

9.  Is  the  water  from  the  springs  or  the  run-off  from  the  rain  the  more  muddy? 
Why? 

10.  At  what  points  do  the  streams  drop  sediment?     Why  there? 

11.  Do  you  see  any  flood  plains?     How  were  they  made? 

12.  Do  you  see  any  terraces?     How  were  they  made? 

13.  What  land  forms  have  been  made  by  the  wearing  away  of  the  surrounding 
land? 

14.  The  surface  land  of  the  earth  is  more  fertile  than  the  deeper  parts.  Does 
erosion  increase  or  decrease  the  fertility  of  the  hills?  Does  the  deposit  made  in  the 
valleys  increase  or  decrease  the  fertility  of  the  valleys? 

B.  Contour  Map  of  Delta  Table 

To  be  sketched  at  school  and  made  at  home  on  a  separate  sheet  of  unruled  paper. 

1.  Outline  the  delta  table,  mark  the  streams,  and  draw  the  shore  line  as  the  zero 
contour. 

2.  Raise  the  water  level  one  inch  and  draw  this  shore  line  as  the  one-inch  contour. 

3.  Continue  raising  the  water  level  inch  by  inch  and  drawing  contours  until  all  of 
the  land  is  submerged  except  the  highest  parts. 

4.  Finish  the  drawing  in  ink. 

5.  Number  the  contours. 

6.  Color  the  water  blue. 

7.  Number  and  label  the  map. 


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C.     Delta  Table  Study.     The  Delta 

1.  As  seen  from  the  above,  what  is  the  general  shape  of  the  delta? 

2.  Is  the  surface  of  the  delta  nearly  level,  or  is  it  sloping? 

3.  Is  the  delta  made  chiefly  of  fine  or  of  coarse  material? 

4.  Is  all  of  the  delta  above  water,  or  is  it  partly  under  water  and  partly  above? 

5.  Make  waves  in  the  water.     Does  strong  wave  action  help  or  hinder  the  building 
oi  the  delta? 

D.     Delta  Table  Study.     The  Coast  Line  of  a  Changing  Sea  Level 

1.  Lower  the  water  level  about  two  inches.     Is  the  new  coast  line  smoothly  curving 
or  very  irregular? 

2.  Where  was  the  land  which  now  forms  this  shore  line  before  the  water  level 
changed? 

3.  Raise  the  water  level  two  or  three  inches,  so  that  the  water  goes  into  the  lower 
part  of  the  valleys.     Is  the  coast  line  now  gently  curving  or  deeply  indented? 

4.  What  has  happened  to  the  lower  part  of  the  stream  valleys?     Such  valleys  are 
called  drowned  valleys. 

5.  Find  on  the  map  and  name  three  drowned  river  valleys  on  the  Atlantic  coast 
of  North  America. 

6.  Which  coast  of  North  America  shows  that  the  sea  level  has  been  iowered? 

7.  Which  coast  of  North  America  shows  that  the  sea  level  has  been  raised? 

REFERENCES 

A.B.C.M.,  284,  et  seq.  Hopkins,  63,  et  seq. 

Davis,  245,  et  seq.  Salisbury,  Br.,  73,  et  seq. 

Dryer,  60-67  Salisbury,  EL,  49,  et  seq. 

G.  &  B.,  28,  et  seq.  Tarr,  50,  et  seq. 


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EXERCISE   XXII 

THE   MISSISSIPPI   AND   ST.   LAWRENCE   RIVER   BASINS 

Note.     Make  the  map  as  home  work  before  answering  the  questions. 

Use  the  drainage  map  of  the  United  States,  on  p.  77.  Draw  a  line  around  the  Missis- 
sippi river  basin  as  follows:  start  east  of  the  mouth  of  the  river,  pass  northeast,  keep- 
ing between  the  tributaries  of  the  Mississippi  and  the  rivers  which  do  not  belong  to  that 
system;  in  New  York  turn  west,  passing  south  of  the  Great  Lakes;  continue  westward 
and  northwestward;  cross  no  streams,  but  wind  in  and  out  along  the  divides  which 
separate  the  tributaries  of  the  Mississippi  system  from  other  streams;  in  southwestern 
Canada  turn  south  and  east,  following  the  Rocky  mountain  divide.  End  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Mississippi. 

Shade  or  color  the  area. 

In  the  same  way  draw  a  line  around  the  St.  Lawrence  river  basin,  which  includes 
the  Great  Lakes.  Where  this  basin  joins  the  Mississippi  basin,  use  a  single  line,  not  a 
double  one. 

Shade  or  color  the  area. 

A.     The  Mississippi  Basin 

1.  The  Ohio  river  brings  in  much  more  water  than  the  Missouri  brings.  Which 
has  the  larger  basin?  Refer  to  the  rainfall  map  of  the  United  States,  on  page  51,  and 
explain  why  the  Ohio  brings  in  more  water. 

2.  Is  the  Mississippi  basin  chiefly  a  region  of  agriculture,  manufacture,  mining, 
forests,  or  commerce?     Name  the  three  which  are  most  important. 

3.  Name  six  or  more  important  cities  on  the  Mississippi  river  or  its  tributaries. 
In  as  many  cases  as  possible  state  what  advantage  the  city  has  because  it  is  on  the 
river. 

4.  What  special  advantage  comes  from  being  located  at  the  mouth  of  a  tribu- 
tary?    Name  two  or  more  cities  so  located. 

5.  Almost  every  year  the  lower  Mississippi  river  has  disastrous  floods.  Give 
the  reasons  why  these  floods  occur. 

B.     The  St.  Lawrence  Basin 

6.  Are  the  tributary  rivers  long  or  short,  compared  with  those  of  the  Mississippi? 

7.  Is  the  St.  Lawrence  basin  chiefly  a  region  of  agriculture,  manufacture,  mining, 
forests,  or  commerce?     Name  the  three  which  are  most  important. 

8.  Name  the  most  important  lake  and  river  cities  in  this  basin.  In  as  many  cases 
as  possible  state  the  advantage  to  the  city  which  comes  from  its  location  upon  the  water. 

9.  The  St.  Lawrence  river  is  never  flooded.  Give  two  or  more  reasons  for  the 
absence  of  floods. 

C.     Comparison  of  the  lower  part  of  the  Mississippi  river  with  the  lower 

part  of  the  St.  Lawrence 

At  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  the  shore  line  has  migrated  seaward;  at  the  moutb 
of  the  St.  Lawrence  the  shore  line  has  migrated  landward. 

79 


10.  Which  of  the  two  rivers  ends  in  a  broad  estuary  or  arm  of  the  sea? 

11.  Which  has  a  delta?     Why  do  not  both  rivers  have  deltas? 

12.  Which  needs  to  be  dredged  to  keep  its  channel  open?     Why  not  both? 

13.  When  the  shore  line  migrates  landward  the  lower  part  of  the  valleys  is  covered 
by  the  sea.  These  are  called  drowned  valleys.  The  St.  Lawrence  has  a  drowned  val- 
ley.     Name  other  rivers  with  drowned  valleys.      See  map  on  page  11. 

REFERENCES 

Dryer,  68-80  (Miss.),  92-101  (St.  L.)  Tarr,  325-329  (Miss.),  329-334  (St.  L.) 

G.  &  B.,  49  (q.  9),  66-70 


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EXERCISE   XXIII 


ERON   AND   COAL 


Material.  Map  of  the  iron  producing  regions  and  of  the  coal  fields  of  the  United 
States,  on  page  81. 

1.  Name  from  your  map  the  states  producing  iron  ore. 

2.  Name  five  shipping  ports  for  iron  ore. 

3.  The  receiving  ports  for  iron  ore  are  along  the  south  shore  of  which  two  of  the 
Great  Lakes.     Name  seven  of  these  ports. 

4.  What  fuel  is  used  in  smelting  the  iron  ore?  In  general  does  this  fuel  .seem  to 
be  shipped  toward  the  iron  producing  regions,  or  is  the  iron  ore  shipped  toward  the  fuel 
producing  regions? 

5.  At  what  cities  are  blast  furnaces  located?  Which  of  these  are  in  states  havinp; 
coal  fields?     Explain  why  the  blast  furnaces  are  there. 

6.  Why  are  there  so  many  blast  furnaces  in  Chicago  and  vicinity? 

7.  Why  is  Pittsburgh  so  important  in  the  making  of  iron? 

8.  Why  is  Cleveland  an  important  center  in  the  making  of  iron? 

REFERENCES 
A.B.C.M.,  260,  261  Hopkins,  246-249 

G.  &  B.,  163,  183,  188,  189,  353  Tarr,  108,  109,  309 


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EXERCISE   XXIV 

COMPARATIVE   STUDY   OF   CONTOUR   MAPS.     A   CLASS   EXERCISE 

Material.  Topographic  Sheets  of  Fargo,  N.  Dak. -Minn.,  Harrisburg,  Pa.,  Savanna, 
la. -111.,  Shasta  Special,  Cal.,  and  either  Sun  Prairie,  Wis.,  or  Weedsport,  N.  Y.,  rulers. 

Purpose.  To  acquaint  the  pupil  with  the  conventional  signs  used  and  with  the 
appearance  of  typical  topographic  maps. 

A.     Mountain  Ridges  and  Valleys.     Harrisburg  Sheet 

I.    Verbal  instruction.     No  notes  required. 

1.  Give  the  location  of  the  region.     See  upper  right  corner  of  map. 

2.  Give  the  scale  of  miles  in  inches  per  mile.     See  bottom  of  map. 

3.  Give  the  contour  interval.    Define  contour  interval. 

4.  In  what  color  is  the  relief? 

5.  In  what  color  is  the  drainage? 

6.  In  what  color  is  the  culture? 

7.  What  is  included  under  "  culture  "? 

8.  Notice  the  following  ridges:  Peters  Mountain,  Third  Mountain,  Second  Moun- 
tain, Blue  Mountain. 

A  township  line  follows  the  crest  of  Peters  Mountain. 

9.  Give  the  elevation  of  the  crest  of  Peters  Mountain,  (a)  above  sea  level;  (6) 
above  its  base. 

10.  Are  the  sides  of  the  ridges  steep  or  is  their  slope  gentle?     How  is  this  shown? 

11.  The  Susquehanna  river  cuts  across  the  ridges.  It  was  there  before  the  ridges 
were  made.     Do  the  principal  creeks  run  parallel  with  the  ridges  or  across  them? 

12.  Are  the  railroads  in  the  valleys,  or  upon  the  ridges? 

13.  Are  the  wagon  roads  for  the  most  part  in  the  valleys  or  upon  the  ridges? 

14.  Are  the  houses  for  the  most  part  in  the  valleys  or  upon  the  ridges? 

B.     A  Level  Country.     Fargo  Sheet 

15.  Give  the  location  of  this  region. 

16.  Give  the  scale  of  miles. 

17.  Give  the  contour  interval.  Are  the  scale  of  miles  and  the  contour  interval  the 
same  as  on  the  Harrisburg  sheet? 

18.  Why  are  the  contours  so  few? 

19.  Do  the  railroads  follow  the  streams? 

20.  Are  the  wagon  roads  straight  or  crooked?     Why? 

21.  In  what  direction  do  the  wagon  roads  extend? 

22.  Where  are  the  houses  found? 

C.     A  Dissected  Region.     Savanna  Sheet 

23.  Give  the  location,  scale  of  miles  and  contour  interval. 

24.  Notice  the  Mississippi  river  with  its  broad  valley. 

25.  Are  there  steep  bluffs  along  the  sides  of  the  valley? 

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26.  Are  the  contours  upon  this  map  regular  or  irregular? 

27.  Are  the  small  streams  regular  or  irregular? 

28.  Are  the  wagon  roads  regular  or  irregular? 

D.    A  Country  of  Swamps  and  of  Oval  Hills.    Weedsport  Sheet 
or  Sun  Prairie  Sheet 

29.  Give  the  location,  scale  of  miles,  and  contour  interval. 

30.  Are  the  streams  regular  or  irregular? 

31.  Find  places  where  the  swamps  seem  to  hinder  the  passage  of  the  wagon  roads. 

32.  Find  places  where  the  wagon  roads  bend  around  the  hills  instead  of  going  over 
the  hill  tops. 

33.  Give  the  height  of  the  hill  above  its  base  at  the  letter  Y  in  the  township  named 
in  the  north  central  part  of  the  map. 

E.     A  Mountain  Peak.     Shasta  Special  Sheet 

The  mountain  covers  all  of  the  map  except  the  northeastern  and  southwestern 
corners. 

34.  Give  the  location,  scale  of  miles,  and  contour  interval. 

35.  As  shown  by  the  contours,  what  is  the  general  shape  of  the  mountain? 

36.  Is  the  mountain  steeper  near  its  base  or  near  its  top? 

37.  Why  are  there  so  few  roads  and  houses? 

II.     To  be  answered  by  each  pupil  in  his  note-book. 

Note.     The  regions  just  studied  may  be  classified  in  three  types:* 

a.    Regions  of  marked  relief;  Harrisburg  and  Shasta  sheets. 

6.     Regions  of  moderate  relief;  Savanna,  Sun  Prairie,  and  Weedsport  Sheets. 

c.     Region  of  slight  relief;  Fargo  sheet. 

1.  In  which  type  do  you  find  the  roads  regular  and  at  right  angles  to  each  other 
and  the  population  well  distributed  over  most  of  the  region? 

2.  In  which  type  do  you  find  the  roads  irregular  and  few,  and  the  population,  if 
any,  chiefly  in  the  valleys? 

3.  In  which  maps  are  the  streams  arranged  in  systematic  order?     What  is  that 
arrangement? 

4.  In  which  type  are  the  wagon  roads  irregular  and  rather  numerous,  forming  a 
net-work  upon  the  land? 

*  After  Salisbury  and  Atwood  in  U.S.G.S.  Professional  Paper  60.     The  Interpretation  of  Topographic 
Maps,  Titles  of  Maps,  V,  VI,  VII. 


86 


EXERCISE  XXV 
STUDY   OF   LAND   SURFACE   AND   STREAM   EROSION   FROM   A   CONTOUR   MAP 
Material.     Highwood,  111.,  Sheet. 

A.     The  Ridges 

This  region  contains  three  low  ridges  parallel  with  the  lake  shore,  with  valleys 
between  the  ridges. 

1.  The  Chicago  &  Northwestern  railroad  follows  the  crest  of  the  first  ridge,  nearest 
the  lake.     What  is  the  greatest  elevation  of  this  ridge  north  of  Fort  Sheridan? 

2.  Give  the  greatest  elevation  of  the  second  ridge  from  the  lake. 

3.  Give  the  elevation  of  the  swamps  and  wet  weather  streams  between  the  first 
and  second  ridges.  The  signs  used  for  swamps  and  other  features  are  on  the  margin 
or  on  the  back  of  the  map. 

4.  How  many  miles  is  it  from  Ravinia  to  the  center  of  Highland  Park?  From 
Highland  Park  to  Lake  Forest? 

B.     Erosion  along  the  Lake  Shore 

5.  The  crowded  contours  show  that  there  is  a  steep  bluff  along  the  lake.  From  the 
contours  tell  how  high  this  bluff  is  above  the  surface  of  Lake  Michigan.  The  top  of 
the  bluff  is  where  the  contours  cease  to  be  crowded.  A  good  place  to  get  the  altitude  of 
the  bluff  is  at  latitude  42°  10'  N.  The  number  in  brown  figures  on  Lake  Michigan 
shows  the  elevation  of  the  lake. 

6.  Notice  the  small  valley  or  ravine  on  the  shore,  just  south  of  Ravinia.  The  upper 
end  is  its  head;  the  lower  end  is  its  mouth.  Is  the  ravine  wider  at  its  head  or  its  mouth? 
Is  this  true  of  most  of  the  ravines? 

7.  Has  the  ravine  steep  or  gently  sloping  sides?     How  is  this  shown? 

8.  Notice  the  branches  or  tributaries  of  the  ravine  just  north  of  Ravinia.  How 
many  tributaries  has  it  on  the  south  side?     How  many  on  the  north? 

9.  How  many  ravines,  large  and  small,  are  there  having  their  mouths  at  the  lake 
shore  on  this  map?     Give  the  length  of  the  longest  one. 

10.  As  time  goes  on,  how  will  these  ravines  change  in  length?     In  width? 

Note.  River  valleys,  made  by  erosion,  begin  like  ravines.  As  the  running  water  wears  the  valleys 
they  become  longer,  wider,  and  deeper,  and  they  in  turn  have  branches.  In  this  manner  a  river  system  is 
developed.     The  ravines  in  this  map  are  so  young  and  so  shallow  that  they  have  no  permanent  streams. 

REFERENCES 
A.B.C.M.,  284-291  Salisbury,  Br.,  89-101 

Davis,  256-258  Salisbury,  El.,  65-70 

G.  &  B.,  43,  44  Tarr,  55,  56 

Hopkins,  64-66 


87 


EXERCISE  XXVI 


STREAM   VALLEYS   IN   A   LEVEL   PLAIN 


Material.     La  Salle,  111.,  sheet. 

The  double  black  lines  are  wagon  roads;  the  single  black  lines  north  of  the  Illinois 
river  are  the  streets  of  La  Salle. 
These  features  are  prominent: 

(a)  The  nearly  level  plain,  best  seen  in  the  northwestern  and  southeastern  parts  of 
the  map,  where  contours  are  few. 

(b)  The  broad  Illinois  river  valley  with  its  wide  flood  plains. 

(c)  Many  small,  narrow  valleys  such  as  the  Vermilion  river  valley. 

1.  Give  the  elevation  of  the  plain  in  the  northwestern  part  of  the  map.  Find  a 
aumbered  contour  and  count  ten  feet  up  for  each  contour.  Away  from  the  river  is  up. 
Give  the  elevation  of  the  plain  in  the  southeastern  part  of  the  map. 

2.  Give  the  elevation  of  the  flood  plain  of  the  Illinois  river  as  shown  by  the  con- 
tours that  border  or  cross  the  flood  plain.  Contours  on  opposite  edges  of  a  stream 
have  the  same  elevation. 

3.  All  the  valleys  in  this  region  have  been  made  by  erosion  (stream  wear).  How 
many  feet  below  the  upland  plain  south  of  the  Illinois  river  is  the  flood  plain  of  that  river? 
Obtain  this  either  by  subtracting  the  elevation  of  the  flood  plain  from  the  elevation  of 
the  plain,  or  by  counting  the  contours  from  the  plain  to  the  flood  plain. 

4.  How  high  is  the  steep  bluff  on  the  south  side  of  the  Illinois  river  valley?  Count 
the  contours  from  the  bottom  of  the  bluff  to  the  top. 

5.  Give  the  width  of  the  flood  plain  of  the  Illinois  river  valley  at  La  Salle.  Using 
the  scale  of  miles,  measure  from  the  river  to  the  bottom  of  the  north  bluff  of  the  valley. 

6.  Give  the  width  of  the  Illinois  river  valley  at  three  places.  Measure  at  the 
bottom  of  the  bluff.  Add  the  three  widths  and  find  their  average.  Show  your  number 
work  in  the  note-book. 

7.  The  upper  end  of  a  valley  is  its  head;  the  lower  end  is  its  mouth.  How  much 
higher  is  the  head  of  the  small  valley  just  west  of  Vermilion  river  than  its  mouth? 
This  small  valley  is  cut  in  the  south  bluff  of  the  Illinois  river  valley. 


89 


EXERCISE  XXVII 
TOPOGRAPHIC   EFFECTS   OF   STREAM   EROSION 

Material.    Savanna,  Ia.-Ill.,  sheet. 

This  region  was  once  a  nearly  level  plain.  The  hills  and  valleys  have  been  made 
by  the  streams.     On  the  map  notice  the  following  special  features: 

(a)  The  broad  valley  of  the  Mississippi  river,  with  its  wide  flood  plains. 

(b)  The  smaller  valleys  made  by  the  streams  which  flow  in  them. 

(c)  Remnants  of  the  original  plain,  which,  in  many  cases,  are  divides  between 
valleys. 

1.  Give  the  width  of  the  Mississippi  river  valley,  from  bluff  to  bluff,  at  the  southern 
edge  of  the  map. 

2.  Give  the  width  of  the  river  at  the  southern  edge  of  the  map. 

3.  Give  the  width  of  the  flood  plain  east  of  the  river,  at  the  southern  edge  of  the  map. 

4.  Give  the  elevation  of  the  flood  plain  of  the  Mississippi  river  on  this  map. 

5.  The  remnants  of  the  original  plain  have  an  elevation  of  about  800  ft.  in  the  south- 
eastern part  of  the  map,  and  of  about  900  ft.  in  the  northern  part.  Counting  from  the 
surface  of  the  original  plain,  how  deep  is  this  part  of  the  Mississippi  river  valley? 

6.  As  the  stream  valleys  develop,  will  these  remnants  of  the  original  plain  remain 
or  will  they  be  worn  away? 

7.  Are  the  wagon  roads  straight  or  crooked? 

8.  Do  most  of  the  wagon  roads  follow  the  divides  or  the  valleys?  Follow  several 
of  the  longer  roads  and,  if  possible,  give  a  reason  for  their  location. 

REFERENCES 
G.  &  B.,  59,  60  riaiisDury,  Br.,  101-103 

Hopkins,  87-91  Salisbury,  El.    59-73 


91 


EXERCISE   XXVIII 


RIVER  FLOOD   PLAINS 


Material.     Donaldsonville,  La.,  sheet. 

This  region  is  on  the  Mississippi  river,  about  fifty  miles  above  New  Orleans,  and, 
by  river,  more  than  one  hundred  fifty  miles  from  the  Gulf. 

On  the  map  notice  the  following  special  features: 

(a)    The  extensive  swamp,  but  a  few  feet  above  sea  level. 

(6)  The  nearly  level  land.  The  smallest  contour  interval  ever  employed  is  used  in 
this  map,  namely,  five  feet. 

(c)    The  levee  or  low  ridge  on  each  side  of  the  Mississippi  river. 

1.  In  going  from  the  swamp  toward  the  river,  does  the  land  become  higher  or  lower? 
In  your  locality  does  the  land  bordering  a  stream  slope  toward  the  stream  or  away  from  it? 

2.  Give  the  elevation  of  the  swamp. 

3.  The  low  ridges  forming  the  banks  of  the  river  are  called  levees  —  natural  levees 
when  made  by  stream  deposit,  artificial  levees  when  made  by  man.  The  natural  levees 
are  made  of  earth  and  stones  dropped  by  the  river  in  times  of  flood.  Where  did  this 
material  come  from? 

4.  Do  rivers  wear  down,  or  build  up  the  land,  or  both? 

5.  The  small  black  squares  are  buildings.  Give  two  reasons  why  settlements  and 
houses  are  near  the  river. 

6.  Numerous  ditches  and  canals  drain  this  low  land;  do  they  carry  water  toward 
the  river  or  toward  the  swamp? 

7.  The  land  along  New  River  has  been  made  like  that  along  the  Mississippi.  In 
the  future  will  the  land  along  New  River  become  broader  or  narrower?     Why? 

REFERENCES 

A.B.C.M.,  304-308  Salisbury,  Br.,  130-134 

Davis,  264  Salisbury,  El.,  86,  87,  89,  90 

Hopkins,  82-84  Tarr,  62,  328 


93 


Exercise  XXIX 


Name  of  Pupil. 


Map  of  the  North  American  Ice  Sheet,  showing  the  Ice  Centers 


CP 


"«t  from  &w»«'* 


/ 


£>r 


A 


^      N 


^ 


<=3<2>Q 


ft 


\    V 


■LABRADOR. 


'J 


V 


5 


l\\l,  I  (ICE  )  >) 
life 


3& 


fe 


§£& 


I    J?  \ " 


j     i 


--?*?/>« 


-SC  Cance 


'«£> 


£ ;  y 


D  =  Driftless  Area 


EXERCISE    XXIX 
THE  NORTH  AMERICAN   ICE   SHEET 

Material.      Map  of  North  America  showing  extent  of  the  ice  sheet,  on  page  95. 

1.  Where  did  the  ice  gather?  Name  from  the  map  the  centers  from  which  it 
moved. 

2.  What  part  of  Alaska  was  not  covered  by  ice? 

3.  How  far  south  did  the  ice  extend?  Tell  through  what  states  the  southern 
border  line  passes. 

4.  In  what  three  states  is  the  small  area  which  the  ice  failed  to  cover?  This  is 
called  the  driftless  area. 

5.  Where  is  there  a  continental  glacier  at  present? 

Advanced  Work.     Reference  Work 

6.  In  the  region  once  covered  by  the  ice,  is  the  soil  made  wholly  from  the  under- 
lying rock,  or  is  it  made  partly  of  materials  which  could  not  have  come  from  the  bed 
rock?     Material  deposited  by  the  ice  sheet  is  called  drift. 

7.  In  places  which  were  not  covered  by  the  glacier,  is  the  soil  made  mostly  from 
the  underlying  rocks  or  from  other  materials? 

8.  What  evidence  of  the  movement  of  the  glacier  does  the  surface  of  the  bed  rock 
show? 

9.  What  effect  did  the  ice  sheet  have  on  drainage? 

10.  Most  of  the  wheat  and  hay  grown  in  the  United  States  east  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains is  in  the  glaciated  area.  This  is  partly  because  of  the  soil,  partly  because  of  the 
climate.     Give  reasons  for  expecting  glaciated  soil  to  be  fertile. 

11.  New  England  was  covered  by  the  ice.  In  many  places  in  New  England  farming 
is  poor.     Why  is  this  so? 

12.  Give  four  proofs  that  much  of  North  America  was  covered  by  an  ice  sheet. 

REFERENCES 

A.B.C.M.,  340-350  Hopkins,  165-167 

Davis,  295-302  Salisbury,  Br.,  199-200,  203-211 

^ryer,  120,  122-134,  138-142,  144,  145,  160,  161  (q.  5)  Salisbury,  El.,  129,  130,  134-141 

G.  &  B.,  145,  map,  132-150  Tarr,  146-153 


97 


EXERCISE   XXX 


GLACIAL  TOPOGRAPHY 


Material.     Whitewater,  Wis.,  and  Weedsport,  N.  Y.,  sheets. 

Each  map  shows  an  area  whose  topography  is  determined  by  the  deposit  of  drift 
left  by  the  great  ice  sheet. 

I.  Is  the  land  shown  on  these  maps  well  drained  or  poorly  drained?  How  do  you 
know?  Such  drainage  is  an  evidence  that  these  regions  were  once  covered  by  the  ice 
sheet. 

2  A  closed  contour  line  from  which  small  lines  radiate  inward  is  a  depression  contour. 
The  area  it  encloses  slopes  downward  and  is  lower  than  the  surrounding  land.  Some- 
times it  is  so  much  lower  that  a  second  depression  contour  is  within  the  first.  Do  you 
find  many  depression  contours  or  few  on  the  Whitewater  sheet?  How  deep  is  the  deep- 
est depression  you  can  find? 

3.  Do  streams  lead  out  from  these  depressions,  or  must  water  which  drains  into 
them  remain  there?  How  many  can  you  find  which  contain  water?  These  undrained 
hollows  are  called  kettle  holes.  They  are  evidences  that  these  regions  were  once  covered 
by  the  ice  sheet. 

4.  On  the  Weedsport  sheet  the  land  near  the  Erie  canal  and  the  Seneca  river  is  the 
lowest  on  the  map.  What  is  its  elevation?  What  is  the  elevation  of  the  swamps  crossed 
by  the  parallel  of  43°  10'?  What  is  the  elevation  of  the  swamps  in  the  southeast  corner 
of  the  map?  Are  these  upland  or  lowland  swamps?  Upland  swamps  are  an  evidence 
of  the  presence  of  a  former  glacier. 

5.  What  three  evidences  do  these  maps  show  that  these  areas  were  once  covered 
by  the  great  ice  sheet? 

Advanced  Work.     Whitewater  Sheet 

6.  The  Whitewater  sheet  shows  a  terminal  moraine  extending  diagonally  across 
the  southeastern  part  of  the  map,  where  the  contour  lines  are  more  irregular  and  are 
crowded  together.  Find  the  terminal  moraine  on  the  map.  Northwest  of  the 
terminal  moraine  is  ground  moraine.  Find  the  ground  moraine.  Are  there  more 
undrained  hollows  in  the  terminal  moraine  or  in  the  ground  moraine?  Are  those  in  the 
terminal  moraine  deeper  or  shallower  than  those  in  the  ground  moraine?  Because  of 
the  presence  of  these  kettle  holes  this  terminal  moraine  is  called  a  kettle  moraine. 

7.  Notice  the  way  in  which  the  hills  are  huddled  together  in  the  terminal  moraine. 
Are  there  many  or  few  hills?  Are  there  more  hills  in  a  square  mile  of  the  terminal  moraine 
or  in  a  square  mile  of  the  ground  moraine? 

8.  Which  is  more  rough,  the  terminal  moraine  or  the  ground  moraine? 

9.  Some  of  the  highest  hills  are  found  north  of  Bass  Lake  and  south  of  Spring 
Lake.     Give  the  height  of  four  of  the  highest. 

10.  The  highest  hills  in  the  ground  moraine  are  found  in  the  north  central  part 
of  the  map.     Give  the  height  of  four  of  these. 

II.  Which  are  higher,  the  hills  in  the  terminal  moraine  or  those  in  the  ground 
moraine? 

12.  Give  three  differences  between  the  terminal  moraine  and  the  ground  moraine 
shown  on  the  map. 


REFERENCES 

A.B.C.M.,  338-349  Hopkins,  148-156 

Davis,  296-302  Salisbury,  Br.,  191-196 

Dryer,  127-129,  132  Salisbury,  El.,  121-125,  127 

G.  &  B.,  135-143  Tarr,  148.  152 


100 


EXERCISE   XXXI 

SHORE   LINES 

Material.     Atlantic  City,  N.  J.,  and  Boothbay,  Me.,  sheets,  tracing  paper,  paste. 

1.  The  rising  sea  level  has  made  deep  bays  along  our  Atlantic  coast.  Delaware 
and  Chesapeake  bays  are  examples.  One  of  these  maps  shows  at  least  two  evidences  of 
a  rising  sea  level.     Which  map?     What  are  the  evidences? 

2.  Why  are  the  islands  on  the  Boothbay  sheet  in  line  with  the  ridges  of  the  land? 

3.  What  would  be  the  result  if  the  sea  level  were  lowered  100  ft.? 

4.  What  would  be  the  result  if  the  sea  level  were  raised  100  ft.? 

5.  Place  a  piece  of  tracing  paper  so  as  to  have  its  upper  border  at  the  top  of 
the  map.  On  the  paper  trace  what  would  be  the  shore  line  if  the  sea  level  should  rise 
100  ft.  With  a  little  paste  on  the  corners  of  the  paper,  paste  the  tracing  on  a  clean 
sheet  of  note-book  paper.  Ink  your  lines.  Label  this  page,  Shore  Line,  if  the  Sea  Level 
should  rise  100  feet.     Boothbay  Sheet. 

6.  How  do  the  islands  on  the  Atlantic  City  sheet  differ  from  those  on  the  Boothbay 
sheet,  (a)  in  shape?  (b)  in  height?  (c)  in  manner  of  formation? 

7.  On  the  Atlantic  City  sheet  what  is  between  the  main  land  and  the  islands?  How 
will  this  change  as  time  goes  on? 

8.  Which  parts  of  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  coasts  resemble  the  land  showm  on  the 
Atlantic  City  sheet?     Which  parts  resemble  the  land  shown  on  the  Boothbay  sheet? 

REFERENCES 

A.B.C.M.,  424-426  Hopkins,  213-217 

Davis,  307-314  Salisbury,  Br.,  232-234,  278 

Dryer,  228,  229,  231  Salisbury,  El.,  80-82,  155-157,  182-186 

G.  &  B.,  302-306,  313,  314  Tarr,  24,  204-210,  220-223 


101 


EXERCISE  XXXII 

THE   CHICAGO   REGION 

Material.     The  Chicago  Folio.     For  advanced  work,  tracing  paper. 
Note.     In  the  folio  the  full  page  maps  should  be  numbered  consecutively. 

1.  Is  the  Chicago  plain  level  or  somewhat  hilly?     Maps  2  and  4. 

2.  What  material  forms  the  side  of  the  plain  bordering  the  lake?     Maps  6  and  8. 

3.  What  bed  rock  outcrops  in  places  over  the  plain?     Maps  6  and  8. 

4.  This  rock  was  formed  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea.  What  does  tins  indicate  as  to 
the  past  history  of  the  region? 

5.  This  rock  outcrops  only  in  some  places;  well-borings  find  it  at  varying  depths 
on  the  plain.     Is  the  surface  of  the  rock  level  or  uneven? 

6.  What  rivers  drain  the  plain?  Is  it  well  drained  or  poorly  drained?  Why  do 
you  think  so? 

7.  Find  the  drainage  canal  (Sanitary  and  Ship  canal).  Maps  1,  2,  and  3.  Describe 
its  course  and  tell  why  it  was  made.     Page  1,  column  3. 

8.  Find  the  Blue  Island  ridge.     Map  8.     Of  what  material  is  it  composed? 

9.  Where  else  do  you  find  such  material?  Maps  5,  6,  7,  and  8.  How  was  this 
material  placed  there? 

10.  How  was  Lake  Chicago  formed?     Page  7,  column  2. 

11.  Name  as  many  evidences  of  this  lake  as  you  can.     Page  7,  column  2. 

12.  Where  was  the  outlet  of  Lake  Chicago?     Figure  7  and  map  3. 

13.  What  streams  now  occupy  the  old  outlet?     Map  3. 

Advanced  Work 

14.  Using  tracing  paper,  trace  the  map  in  figure  7.  Shade  the  portions  covered  by 
the  moraine.     Ink  the  lines.     Label  the  map. 

15.  In  the  same  way  trace  figure  11.     Ink  the  lines.     Label  the  map. 

16.  In  the  same  way  trace  figure  12.  Ink  the  lines.  Label  the  map.  Paste  the 
maps  on  pages  of  note-book  paper.  Write  the  number  of  the  exercise  and  the  title  at 
the  top  of  each  page. 

REFERENCES 

A.B.C.M.,  Fig.  161,  facing  p.  320,  358  Salisbury,  Br.,  208,  209 

Davis,  319,  320  Salisbury,  El.,  137-139 

Dryer,  146  Tarr,  150,  151,  Fig.  280 
G.  &  B.,  146,  156,  157 


103 


EXERCISE  XXXIII 

COMMERCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL   CHICAGO 

Material.     The  Chicago  Folio. 

1.  What  seems  to  be  the  chief  advantage  in  the  location  of  Chicago?  Index  map. 
on  outside  of  cover. 

2.  How  many  railroad  lines  does  the  index  map  show  coming  into  Chicago?  Each 
of  these  roads  has  its  terminus  in  Chicago. 

3.  Name  at  least  one  other  city  situated  where  land  and  water  transportation  meet. 
In  such  places  reshipment  of  goods  is  necessary,  and  commercial  cities  arise.  It  is  said 
that  Chicago  will  probably  remain  the  most  important  grain  center  because  of  the  neces- 
sary transfer  from  steamer  to  railroad. 

4.  What  two  rivers  communicate  with  Lake  Michigan  at  Chicago?     Maps  2  and  4. 

5.  How  long  is  the  longest  breakwater  near  the  mouth  of  the  Chicago  river?  Break- 
waters are  shown  by  heavy  black  lines  in  the  lake,  near  the  mouth  of  the  river.     Map  2. 

6.  How  many  lights  are  there  shown  near  the  mouth  of  the  Chicago  river?     Map  2. 

7.  Just  north  of  the  Calumet  river  note  the  area  covered  by  buildings  and  short 
lines  of  railroad.  Here  are  the  rolling  mills  of  the  Illinois  Steel  Company.  Map  4. 
How  niany  lights  are  near  the  mouth  of  the  Calumet  river? 

8.  Note  the  waterworks  cribs.  Map  2.  How  many  do  you  find?  How  far  from 
the  shore  is  the  one  farthest  out?  The  nearest  one?  Water  is  conveyed  from  these  cribs 
in  tunnels,  partly  under  the  lake  and  partly  under  the  city,  to  thirteen  pumping  stations. 

9.  Observe  the  course  of  the  south  Branch  of  the  Chicago  river.  The  Ogden  ditch 
connects  it  with  what  other  river?  From  the  Chicago  river  to  the  Desplaines  river  was 
an  important  portage  to  which  the  Indians  directed  Joliet  and  Marquette. 

10.  Observe  the  location  of  the  Union  Stockyards.  Map  2.  Is  use  made  of  the 
river  or  of  railroads  in  receiving  stock  and  sending  out  products? 

11.  Observe  the  south  Branch  of  the  Chicago  river.  How  many  slips  for  the  accom- 
modation of  ships  do  you  find?  Much  coal,  salt,  lumber,  fruit,  and  package  freight  is 
received  on  the  Chicago  river. 

12.  How  many  slips  do  you  find  on  the  Calumet  river?  Map  4.  Iron  ore,  lumber, 
and  coal  are  received  on  the  Calumet  river.  Grain  elevators  are  situated  on  both  rivers. 
The  number  on  the  Calumet  river  is  increasing.  Grain,  flour,  package  freight  is  sent 
out  from  both  rivers. 

13.  Do  the  rivers  or  the  lake  form  the  harbor  for  the  loading  and  unloading  of 
vessels? 

14.  What  rock  outcrops  in  places  within  the  city?     Maps  5,  6,  7,  and  8. 

15.  Name  three  or  more  places  where  quarries  exist  in  the  region.     Page  12. 

16.  What  uses  are  made  of  the  stone?     Page  12. 

17.  In  what  places  on  the  Chicago  plain  are  sand  and  gravel  deposits  found?  Maps 
9,  10,  11,  and  12.     See  legend. 

18.  What  uses  are  made  of  these  deposits?     Page  12,  column  1. 

19.  The  completion  of  the  deep  waterway  from  the  Great  Lakes  to  the  Gulf  would 
mean  the  improvement  of  what  streams  shown  on  maps  1  and  2? 

20.  The  canal  connecting  the  Calumet  river  with  the  Sanitary  and  Ship  canal  will 
enter  the  drainage  canal  near  what  place?     Map  3. 

105 


21.  Chicago  is  the  center  of  an  area  of  production.  Lumber  comes  from  Michigan 
and  Wisconsin.  South,  west,  and  east  of  the  city  are  prairie  plains,  where  farm  products 
are  raised,  and  farm  implements  and  machinery  needed.  In  Illinois  there  are  large  coal 
beds.  Copper  and  iron  come  from  Michigan  and  Wisconsin.  Pennsylvania  coal  is 
received  by  the  Great  Lakes  as  well  as  by  rail.  Would  a  place  situated  as  Chicago  is, 
be  a  retail  or  a  wholesale  center? 

22.  Important  business  transactions  require  good  banking  facilities.  Referring 
to  questions  11,  12,  and  21,  name  some  reasons  why  Chicago  is  the  banking  and  financial 
center  of  the  Middle  West. 

REFERENCE 
Tarr,  Fig.  469,  p.  312,  313,  314 


EXERCISE   XXXIV 


NEW   YORK   AND   VICINITY 


Material.     The  New  York  Folio. 

The  full  page  maps  in  the  folio  should  be  numbered  consecutively  from  1  to  13. 
Reference  to  the  maps  is  made  by  number  and  to  the  descriptive  text  by  page  and  column. 
New  York  is  the  largest  city  and  the  chief  seaport  of  the  United  States.  It  is  the  home  of 
nearly  five  million  people.  Not  only  does  New  York  have  a  fine  large  harbor  of  deep 
water  for  the  largest  ocean  going  vessels,  but  through  the  Hudson  river,  Erie  canal,  and  the 
Great  Lakes  the  products  of  the  interior  reach  this  port  for  shipment  to  foreign  countries. 
Railroads  have  easy  access  through  a  series  of  valleys  and  passes.  Two-thirds  of  the 
foreign  commerce  of  the  United  States  passes  through  the  port  of  New  York. 

1.  Make  a  sketch  map  of  New  York  bay  and  harbor  with  connecting  waters,  from 
figure  1.     Print  names  on  the  bodies  of  water  shown  and  on  the  adjacent  land. 

2.  Figure  1  gives  the  depth  of  the  water  in  fathoms.     Give,  in  feet,  the  greatest 
depth  which  can  be  used  by  a  vessel  entering  the  harbor. 

3.  Is  the  Hudson  a  normal  river,  bringing  fresh  water  to  its  mouth,  or  like  an  arm 
of  the  sea  with  the  tide  moving  up  a  long  distance?     Page  17,  column  1. 

4.  What  has  brought  about  the  condition  found  in  question  3? 

5.  Notice  the  cliffs  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Hudson.     Map  2.     How  high  are  they? 
By  what  name  are  they  known? 

6.  Refer  to  page  8,  column  1,  and  to  figures  14  and  15,  and  describe  the  appearance 
of  these  cliffs.     Is  the  rock  durable  or  easily  weathered? 

7.  Look  on  maps  2,  3,  and  4,  and  tell  where  the  water  is  bordered  by  a  rocky  coast 
of  considerable  relief.     Page  17,  column  2. 

8.  From  the  same  maps  tell  where  the  shore  is  low  and  sandy  or  swampy,  the  New 
Jersey  type. 

9.  Tell  how  Coney  Island  and  Rockaway  Beach  (map  4)  have  been  made.     (Page 
17,  column  3. 

10.  Find  Sandy  Hook  in  figure  1,  and  tell  of  what  material  it  is  composed.  How 
has  it  been  made?     Page  17,  column  3. 

11.  Study  figure  12  and  maps  11  and  12,  and  give  the  location  of  the  terminal 
moraine.     Give  the  direction  of  ice  movement.     Page  13,  column  1,  and  figure  22. 

12.  From  maps  9  and  10  give  locations  of  kames.  Tell  of  what  material  they  are 
made.     Page  16,  column  2. 

13.  What  kind  of  drift  is  found  in  Central  Park?     Map  10. 

14.  Where  can  glaciated  bed  rock  be  found?  Page  14,  column  4,  and  figures 
23  and  24. 

15.  Name  several  kinds  of  bed  rock  found  just  under  the  drift.     Maps  5-8. 

16.  Explain  what  has  caused  the  falls  in  the  Passaic  river  at  Paterson.  Map  5, 
and  figures  19,  20,  21,  and  page  18,  column  2. 

17.  Examine  the  strycture  section  sheet,  map  13,  and  tell  whether  the  rocks  east 
or  west  of  the  Hudson  are  the  more  crumpled  and  folded.  Which  side  of  the  river  con- 
tains the  older  rocks? 

18.  Would  you  judge  from  these  sections  that  there  has  been  much  or  little  erosion 
of  these  rocks? 

107 


19.  What  reasons  can  you  assign  for  the  growth  of  New  York  City  to  its  present 
size? 

20.  What  inland  waterway  connects  New  York  with  the  Great  Lakes? 

REFERENCES 

A.B.C.M.,  431,  432  Salisbury,  Br.,  278,  Fig.  313 

Davis,  368  Salisbury,  El.,  185,  Fig.  180 

G.  &  B.,  304,  305  Tarr,  224,  301-305,  376 
Hopkins,  233 


108 


EXERCISE  XXXV 

EFFECT   OF  EROSION  UPON   ROCKS   OF   UNEQUAL  HARDNESS 

Material.     The  Harrisburg,  Pa.,  sheet. 

1.  East  of  the  Susquehanna  river  are  four  mountain  ridges.  In  what  direction  do 
they  extend? 

2.  Have  the  ridges  been  worn  into  hills  or  are  they  fairly  level  on  top? 

3.  Does  the  Susquehanna  river  flow  in  the  same  direction  as  the  ridges  extend,  or 
does  the  river  flow  nearly  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  of  the  ridges?  The  cut  made 
by  a  river  through  a  mountain  ridge  is  a  water  gap. 

4.  Compare  the  width  of  the  Susquehanna  river  at  the  gap  where  it  cuts  through 
Second  Mountain,  with  its  width  above  the  gap.  Is  the  width  less  at  the  gap  or 
above  and  below  the  gap?     What  difference  in  the  hardness  of  the  rock  might  cause  this? 

5.  Do  the  tributaries  of  the  Susquehanna  river  flow  in  the  same  direction  as  the 
ridges  extend,  or  do  they  flow  nearly  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  of  the  ridges? 

6.  Has  the  rock  between  the  ridges  been  more  or  less  worn  than  the  ridges  them- 
selves?    Is  the  rock  in  the  valleys  more  durable  or  weaker  than  the  rock  of  the  ridges? 

7.  Between  the  ridges  flow  tributaries  of  the  Susquehanna  river.  Into  these  tribu- 
taries flow  small  streams  from  the  sides  of  the  ridges.  Are  the  valleys  of  these  little 
streams  shallow  or  are  they  deep  gorges? 

8.  Do  these  little  streams  begin  at  the  top  of  the  ridges  or  part  way  down? 

9.  Do  you  think  the  ridges  are  much  worn  or  little  worn  by  stream  action? 

10.  Do  your  answers  to  questions  2,  6,  7,  and  9  indicate  that  the  ridges  are  made  of 
durable  or  weak  rock? 

11.  This  region  was  once  a  nearly  level  plain.     Explain  how  the  mountain  ridges 
and  the  valleys  have  been  made. 

12.  Why  are  the  wagon  roads  so  crooked? 

REFERENCES 

A.B.C.M.,  381,  382,  Plate  II,  facing  p.  382  Salisbury,  Br.,  115-118,  122 

Davis,  210,  Plate  9,  facing  p.  211  Salisbury,  El.,  78,  79-82 

Dryer,  184-187  Tarr,  102,  103,  Fig.  172,  Fig.  173,  Fig.  192,  facing  p.  108, 

G.  &  B.,  63,  64,  Fig.  45,  Fig.  46,  179,  180  Fig.  467,  p.  311 

Hopkins,  338 


109 


EXERCISE  XXXVI 


RUGGED   MOUNTAINS 


Material.     Platte  Canyon,  Col.,  sheet. 

The  Platte  Canyon  map  shows  the  entire  width  of  the  front  range  of  the  Rock} 
Mountains,  including  a  small  part  of  the  Great  Plains  in  the  northeast  corner  of  the  map. 
A  good  idea  of  the  rugged  surface  of  a  lofty  mountain  range,  with  its  numerous  gorges 
is  obtained  from  this  map.  If  Gilbert  and  Brigham's  Introduction  to  Physical  Geogra- 
phy is  available,  refer  in  it  to  page  171,  which  shows  the  Rocky  Mountain  region  in 
Colorado,  including  the  Front  Range. 

1.  Measure  the  width  of  the  Front  Range  on  the  map  (entire  width  of  the  map). 
Give  the  width  in  miles. 

2.  Name  three  of  the  highest  peaks  and  give  the  elevation  of  each. 

3.  Give  in  round  numbers  the  height  of  these  peaks  above  the  Great  Plains  which 
are  in  the  northeast  corner  of  the  map. 

4.  Is  the  crest  of  the  range,  which  extends  north  and  south  across  the  map,  even 
and  smooth  or  much  cut  up  by  erosion? 

5.  Does  the  condition  of  the  crest  indicate  much  or  little  erosion? 

6.  Copy  the  accompanying  cross-section  and  supply  the  eroded  layers  by  dotted 
lines  extending  over  the  crest. 

7.  "What  streams  have  cut  entirely  across  or  through  this  range?  These  streams 
must  have  had  this  course  before  the  mountains  rose.  They  have  been  able  to  cut  down 
their  beds  as  fast  as  the  land  rose.     Which  are  the  older,  the  streams  or  the  mountains? 

8.  Have  these  streams  deep,  narrow  valleys,  or  broad,  shallow  valleys?  How  deep 
are  the  valleys  below  the  mountain  tops? 

9.  Find  the  hog-back  ridges  south  of  the  town  of  Platte  Canyon.  See  illustration 
of  hog-backs  in  almost  any  text-book.     Tell  how  the  hog-backs  were  made. 

10.  Judging  from  the  uneven  surface  of  the  land,  do  you  think  this  region  is  adapted 
to  farming,  grazing,  or  mining?     Are  settlements  few  or  numerous? 


Cross  Section  of  Front  Range  op  Rocky  Mountains 

REFERENCES 

A.B.C.M.,  382-384  Hopkins,  464,  465  (q.  h) 

Davis,  185-188  Salisbury,  Br.,  119  (q.  9) 

Dryer,  206,  Fig.  186,  Fig.  187  Salisbury,  El.,  80,  Fig.  81  (q.  9) 

G.  &  B.,  89  (q.  9),  168-174  Tarr,  Figs.  157,  169 


111 


EXERCISE  XXXVII 

PLATEAUS 

Material.  Bright  Angel,  Ariz.,  sheet,  or  Kaibab,  Ariz.,  sheet,  and  Charleston,  W.  Va., 
sheet. 

The  region  shown  on  the  Arizona  sheets  belongs  to  a  series  of  plateaus  west  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains.  The  Charleston  sheet  shows  a  portion  of  the  Appalachian  Plateau. 
In  comparing  these  two  regions  notice  that  the  contour  interval  and  scale  of  miles  are 
not  the  same  on  the  two  maps. 

1.  What  is  the  contour  interval  on  the  Kaibab  sheet? 

2.  Are  there  many  or  few  contours  bordering  the  river?  What  does  this  indicate 
as  to  the  depth  of  the  valley  below  the  upland? 

3.  Name  four  plateaus  on  the  Kaibab  sheet.  Give  the  highest  heavy  contour  on 
each  plateau. 

4.  Are  these  plateaus  smooth  or  rugged? 

5.  Give  the  elevation  of  four  hilltops  on  the  Charleston  sheet. 

6.  Is  the  upland  here  a  series  of  broad  plateaus,  or  does  it  consist  of  many  hilltops? 
7    The  annual  rainfall  in  the  region  shown  on  the  Kaibab  sheet  is  10  in.  or  less. 

Why  are  there  so  many  gorges  with  no  streams? 

8.  The  annual  rainfall  in  the  region  shown  on  the  Charleston  sheet  is  about  50  in. 
How  does  the  number  of  streams  here  compare  with  the  number  on  the  Kaibab  sheet? 

9.  Have  the  plateaus  in  West  Virginia  or  in  Arizona  been  the  more  dissected  by 
streams? 

Advanced  Work 

About  opposite  Bright  Angel  Creek  a  trail  leads  down  into  the  canyon.  Tourists 
usually  go  down  by  this  trail.  A  table  is  given  below  from  which  you  are  to  make  a 
cross-section  of  the  canyon  at  a  place  near  this  trail. 

Place  cross  section  paper  with  the  punched  edge  toward  you.  Make  heavy  the 
horizontal  line  nine  centimeters  from  the  top  of  the  paper.      Label  this  line,  Sea  Level. 

Beginning  with  0,  two  centimeters  from  the  left,  number  the  heavy  vertical  lines 
which  cross  the  sea  level  line  0,  1,  2,  3,  etc.,  to  19.  Use  very  small  figures  placed 
under  the  sea  level  line. 

Leaving  one  centimeter  at  the  left  for  a  margin,  number  the  four  heavy  horizontal 
lines  above  the  sea  level  line,  2000,  4000,  6000,  8000.  Let  one  centimeter  equal  2000  ft. 
Place  a  dot  7250  ft.  above  the  zero  point  as  given  in  the  table.  One  centimeter  to 
the  right  place  another  dot,  also  at  7250  ft.  above  the  sea  level  line.  Place  other  dots 
at  the  elevations  given  in  the  table.  Draw  a  line  connecting  these  dots.  The  line  so 
drawn  is  a  cross-section  of  the  canyon.  Ink  your  line.  Shade  the  space  between  the 
profile  and  the  sea  level  line.  Draw  a  line  around  your  diagram  one  centimeter  from 
it  on  each  side. 

Label  the  diagram,  Cross  Section  of  the  Colorado  Canyon  at  a  Place  near  Bright 
Angel  Trail. 

Horizontal  scale,  1  cm.  =  f  mi.,  or  nearly  4000  ft. 

Vertical  scale,  1  cm.  =  2000  ft 


113 


TABLE 


Distance  in  cm.  from 
zero  point 

Elevation  in  feet 

Distance  in  cm.  from 
zero  point 

Elevation  in  feet 

0 

7250 

6.4 

4000 

1 

7250 

9 

4000 

1.5 

7000 

11 

5000 

3 

5000 

16 

8000 

5 

4000 

18 

8000 

5.8 

2500 

19 

S250 

6 

2500 

REFERENCES 

A..B.C.M.,  Fig.  107,  p.  249,  Fig.  119,  p.  267,  369-374  Salisbury,  Br.,  15, 16,  Fig.  79,  Fig.  83,  Fig.  112 

Davis,  162-175  Salisbury,  EL,  Plate  XIV,  facing  p.  53,  Fig.  70 
Dryer,  S6,  S7  p.  74 

G.  &  B.,  Frontispiece,  59,  Fig.  41,   71,  174,  175,  Tarr,  81-85,  Fig.  59,  facing  p.  45,  Fig.  477,  facing 

182-185  p.  321,  322,  323 

Hopkins,  455.  468 


114 


EXERCISE  XXXVIII 

PHYSIOGRAPHIC   REGIONS   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 

Map  study  and  reference  work 
Note.     This  exercise  is  largely  a  review  of  the  preceding  work. 

A.     Atlantic  Coastal  Plain 

1.  Name  the  states  lying  wholly  or  partly  in  the  Atlantic  coastal  plain. 

2.  Name  four  important  rivers  which  cross  this  plain  and  empty  into  the  Atlantic. 
Why  are  they  called  drowned  rivers? 

3.  Name  three  large  cities  on  the  Atlantic  coastal  plain.  Of  what  advantage  is 
the  position  of  each? 

4.  Is  this  region  of  value  to  commerce,  manufacture,  mining,  agriculture,  or  grazing? 
Tell  its  most  important  products. 

B.     Piedmont-New  England  Plateau 

5.  What  is  the  fall  line? 

6.  Name  five  important  cities  situated  on  the  fall  line. 

C.    Appalachian  Mountain  Area 

7.  This  area  includes  South  Mountain  and  the  Blue  Ridge  at  the  west  border  of 
the  Piedmont  plateau,  the  Appalachian  ridges,  and  the  Appalachian  plateau.  Describe 
the  position  of  the  rock  layers  in  the  Appalachian  ridges. 

8.  Do  the  ridges  exist  because  they  are  of  rock  harder  than  the  rock  of  the  valleys 
or  because  they  were  uplifted? 

9.  The  Appalachian  plateau  is  a  mass  of  steep,  high  hills.  Why  call  it  a  plateau? 
How  were  its  hills  made? 

10.  The  Appalachian  ridges  and  Appalachian  plateau  are  of  little  value  to  agricul- 
ture.    Why? 

11.  This  region  is  of  importance  to  mining  and  manufacturing.     Why?     Name 
three  products. 

12.  What  large  rivers  rise  in  the  Appalachian  Mountain  area?     In  what  direction 
does  each  flow? 

D.     Great  Lakes  Region 

13.  Wrhat  states  are  wholly  or  partly  in  the  Great  Lakes  region? 

14.  Is  this  area  of  value  to  commerce,  agriculture,  lumbering,  mining,  grazing,  or 
manufacturing? 

15.  Name  four  or  more  important  products. 

16.  Name  and  locate  six  important  cities  in  this  area. 

E.     Prairie   Plains 

17.  Tn  what  states  are  the  prairie  plains? 

18.  Is  this  area  of  value  to  commerce,  agriculture,  lumbering,  mining,  grazing,  or 
manufacturing? 

117 


19.  Name  three  important  products. 

20.  What  large  rivers  lie  wholly  or  partly  in  this  area? 

F.  Great  Plains 

21.  In  what  states  are  the  Great  Plains? 

22.  How  does  the  rainfall  of  the  Great  Plains  compare  with  the  rainfall  farther  east? 

23.  How  does  the  rainfall  of  the  Great  Plains  influence  agriculture,  grazing,  and 
rattle  raising? 

24.  How  is  it  possible  to  do  more  farming  here  than  formerly? 

25.  Name  four  or  more  large  rivers  which  flow  through  this  area. 

G.  Gulf  Plains 

26.  This  region  is  partly  river  plains,  partly  marine  plains.  What  rivers  have 
made  plains  here? 

27.  Is  this  area  of  value  to  commerce,  agriculture,  lumbering,  mining,  grazing,  or 
manufacturing? 

28.  Name  three  or  more  important  products. 

29.  Name  five  important  cities  in  the  gulf  plains. 

H.     Western  Interior  Region 

30.  Name  the  states  which  are  wholly  or  partly  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  region. 

31.  Is  this  region  of  value  to  commerce,  agriculture,  lumbering,  mining,  grazing, 
or  manufacturing? 

32.  Name  four  or  more  important  products. 

33.  Name  six  or  more  important  rivers  which  rise  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  area. 
In  what  direction  does  each  flow?  , 

34.  Are  the  river  valleys  deep,  narrow  gorges  with  swift  streams,  or  shallow,  wide 
valleys  with  sluggish  streams?  How  do  the  valleys  of  the  eastward  flowing  streams 
change  as  they  go  over  the  Great  Plains? 

35.  In  what  states  do  the  Colorado  plateaus  lie? 

36.  In  what  state  is  the  Grand  Canyon  of  the  Colorado?     For  what  is  it  noted? 

37.  Of  what  material  is  the  Columbia  plateau  made? 

38.  How  were  the  Basin  Ranges  formed? 

39.  In  what  states  do  you  find  rivers  which  do  not  flow  to  any  ocean? 

40.  In  what  part  of  the  western  interior  region  are  salt  and  borax  obtained? 

41.  Salt  and  borax  beds  are  an  indication  of  what  change  in  climate? 

I.     Pacific  Area 

42.  In  what  states  is  the  Pacific  area? 

43.  Name  three  large  cities  in  this  area. 

44.  Locate  three  places  where  there  are  drowned  rivers. 

45.  Locate  the  Cascade  Mountains.  The  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains.  The  Coast 
Range. 

46.  Between  what  mountains  is  the  central  valley  of  California? 

118 


47.  Do  more  streams  come  down  the  east  facing  slope  of  the  Coast  Range  or  down 
the  west  facing  slope  of  the  Sierras?     Why  is  this  so? 

48.  Is  this  region  of  value  to  commerce,  agriculture,  lumbering,  mining,  grazing, 
or  manufacturing? 

49.  Name  six  or  more  important  products. 

50.  What  three  conditions  make  this  an  important  fruit-raising  region? 

51.  Name  three  important  railroads  which  lead  into  the  Pacific  Area. 

52.  In  what  physiographic  region  do  you  live? 


REFERENCES 


General 


A.B.C.M.,  365 
Salisbury,   Br.,  19 
Salisbury,  El.,  Fig.  8,  p.  12 
Tarr,  Fig.  461,  facing  p.  305 

A.  Atlantic  Coastal  Plain 

A.B.C.M.,  165,  168,  354-356 

Davis,  148-150,  155-158 

Dryer,  235-238,  Supplement,  p.  xxvi 

G.  &  B.,  151-154 

Hopkins,  311-313,  449-453 

Tarr,  72-75,  305-307 

B.  Piedmont-New  England  Plateau 

Davis,  149,  206,  207 
Dryer,  188,  189 
G.&B.,  65,  70,  161,  181 
Hopkins,  453 
Salisbury,  Br.,  15 
Salisbury,  EL,  11 
Tarr,  307,  308 

C.  Appalachian  Mountains 

Davis,  167-170,  210 
Dryer,  184-187,  189 
G.  &  B.,  179-181,  182-185 
Hopkins,  453,  454 
Salisbury,  Br.,  Fig.  16 
Tarr,  308-310 

D.  Great  Lakes  Region 

Davis,  248 
Dryer,  143,  144 
G.  &  B.,  156,  157 
Hopkins,  458 
Tarr,  312-314 

E.  Prairie  Plains 

A.B.C.M.,  163,  164 
Dryer,  357 
G.  &  B.,  162,  163 
Hopkins,  320,  411 
Tarr,  76,  77,  310-314 


F.  Great  Plains 

A.B.C.M.,  162,  163,  364-366 

Davis,  71,  158-160 

G.  &  B.,  163-165 

Hopkins,  459 

Salisbury,  EL,  Plate  III,  fig.   1,   facing 

p.  6 
Tarr,  76,  77,  310,  311 

G.  Gulf  Plains 

Dryer,  236 

G.  &  B.,  162 

Hopkins,  461-463 
H.  Western  Interior  Region 

A.B.C.M.,  161,  162,  382,  384 

Davis,  181-183 

Dryer,  135,  136,  181-183 

G.&B.,  168-176 

Hopkins,  464-469 

Tarr,  314-317 
I.   Colorado  Plateaus 

A.B.C.M.,  368,  369 

Davis,  163-165 

Dryer,  86 

G.  &  B.,  174,  175 

Hopkins,  467,  468 

Tarr,  Fig.  477,  facing  p.  321,  322,  323 
J.   Columbian  Plateau 

Tarr,  320,  321 
K.   Pacific  Area 

G.  &  B.,  161,  178 

Hopkins,  469,  470 


119 


EXERCISE  XXXIX 

COTTON   PRODUCTION 

Material.  Map  of  the  United  States  showing  the  area  of  cotton  production,  on 
page  113. 

1.  Name  the  states  from  west  to  east  where  the  most  cotton  is  raised. 

2.  Observe  the  location  of  the  cotton  producing  area  with  reference  to  the  twenty- 
inch  rainfall  line,  with  reference  to  the  January  isotherm  of  35°  and  to  the  line  showing 
the  date  of  the  last  killing  frost.  What  three  elements  of  climate  limit  the  extent  of 
the  area  of  cotton  production? 

3.  The  summers  are  long  in  southeastern  United  States.  Does  the  location  of  the 
cotton  belt  indicate  that  the  plant  needs  a  long  or  a  short  growing  season? 

4.  Observe  the  location  of  the  area  of  cotton  production  with  reference  to  fhe 
Gulf  coast,  where  rainfall  is  excessive.  What  does  this  indicate  as  to  the  rainfall 
required? 

5.  Does  the  map  indicate  that  much  or  little  is  raised  along  the  Mississippi  river? 
What  does  this  show  as  to  the  amount  of  yield  on  river  flood  plains? 

The  principal  ports  of  shipment  are  Galveston,  Tex.,  New  Orleans,  La.,  Savannah, 
Ga.,  Charleston,  S.  C,  Wilmington,  N.  C,  New  York  City.  On  the  map  mark  each 
city  with  a  small  circle.  Make  a  short  arrow  leading  away  from  the  coast  at  each  place. 
Much  cotton  is  shipped  to  New  Orleans  from  Memphis,  Tenn.  Mark  Memphis  with 
a  circle  and  make  an  arrow  pointing  down  the  river.  Refer  to  United  States  map  on 
page  11,  for  location  of  cities. 

Much  cotton  is  manufactured  in  Massachusetts  and  New  Hampshire,  where  settle- 
ments are  oldest,  where  water  power  was  made  use  of  early,  where  manufacturing  towns 
are  accessible  to  immigrant  workmen  from  Europe.  The  number  of  cotton  mills  in 
the  South  is  increasing.     North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  and  Georgia  have  many  mills. 

Advanced  Work 

6.  Consult  a  commercial  geography  and  make  a  list  of  the  products  obtained  from 
the  cotton  plant,  and  tell  from  which  part  of  the  plant  each  is  made. 

7.  Place  a  sheet  of  cross  section  paper  with  punched  edge  away  from  you.  Make 
heavy  the  vertical  line  three  centimeters  from  the  left  edge.  At  the  left  of  this  line, 
beginning  five  centimeters  from  the  top,  write  the  names  of  the  states  given  in  table. 
Write  these  names  upon  the  centimeter  lines. 

Turn  the  paper  so  that  the  punched  edge  is  at  your  left.  Four  centimeters  from 
the  left  edge  number  the  heavy  horizontal  lines,  beginning  with  zero  on  the  line  previ- 
ously drawn  and  continuing  to  within  five  centimeters  of  the  top.  Above  the  word 
"Texas"  make  a  rectangle  20.9  cm.  long  and  .4  cm.  wide.  In  the  same  way  make  other 
rectangles  above  the  names  of  the  other  states  given  in  the  table.  Shade  or  color  the 
rectangles.  These  show  the  number  of  bales  of  cotton  produced  for  five  years  ending 
with  1911. 

At  the  top  label  your  diagram,  States  Producing  the  most  Cotton,  Average  for 
Five  Years,  1912-1916. 

Scale,  1  cm.  =  200,000  bales. 

123 


TABLE 


States 

Length  of  Rectangle  in  cm. 

States 

Length  of  Rectangle  in  cm 

20.9 

10.6 

6  2 

6.1 

Oklahoma 

5.6 

Mississippi 

Arkansas 

5.4 

S.  Carolina 

4.8 

Alabama. 

REFERENCES 


Davis,  148,  149,  348 


G.  &  B.,  351 


I'/A 


EXERCISE  XL 


WHEAT   PRODUCTION 


Material.  Map  of  the  United  States  showing  areas  of  wheat  production,  on 
page  125. 

1.  Why  are  there  many  flour  mills  in  Minnesota?  Minneapolis  and  Duluth  are 
noted  for  the  amount  of  flour  they  make.  On  the  map  mark  each  of  these  cities  with 
a  small  circle. 

2.  Winter  wheat  is  planted  in  the  fall  and  harvested  in  the  early  summer.  Spring 
wheat  is  planted  in  the  spring  and  harvested  in  the  autumn.  Winter  wheat  comes 
largely  from  Kansas,  California,  Texas,  Ohio,  Michigan,  Maryland,  Tennessee.  Spring 
wheat  comes  largely  from  Minnesota,  North  and  South  Dakota,  Nebraska,  Washington, 
Wisconsin,  Iowa.     Which  variety  requires  the  milder  climate? 

3.  Great  quantities  of  wheat  go  through  the  Sault  Ste.  Marie  (The  Soo)  canal 
and  the  upper  lakes,  to  Buffalo.  From  there  it  is  shipped  by  rail  or  canal  to  New  York, 
Philadelphia,  Baltimore.  Make  a  circle  at  each  of  these  cities.  Make  an  arrow,  leading 
through  the  Sault  Ste.  Marie  canal,  showing  the  direction  in  which  the  wheat  is  shipped. 

What  canal  leads  east  from  Buffalo? 

4.  Where  are  the  areas  of  wheat  production  situated  with  reference  to  the  20-inch 
rainfall  line? 

Advanced  Work 

5.  As  in  Exercise  39  make  rectangles  showing  the  production  of  wheat  by  states. 
Use  the  following  table. 

At  the  top  label  your  diagram,  States  Producing  the  most  Wheat,  Average  for 
Five  Years,  1912-1916. 

Scale,  1  cm.  =  6,000,000  bushels. 

TABLE 


States 

Length  of  Rectangle  in  cm. 

States 

Length  of  Rectangle  in  cm. 

18-7 

16.5 

10.8 

9.2 

7.9 

S.  Dakota 

6  9 

N.  Dakota 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Missouri 

5.6 

Nebraska 

5.3 

5.2 

Washington 

Ohio 

4.7 

Davis,  77,  348 
G.  &  B.,  347 


REFERENCES 


Hopkins,  317 
Tarr,  Fig.  468,  311 


127 


EXERCISE  XLI 


CORN   PRODUCTION 


Material.  Map  of  the  United  States  showing  the  area  of  corn  production,  on 
page  129. 

1.  How  does  the  map  show  that  corn  needs  a  moist  climate  but  not  one  of  excessive 
rainfall?     Compare  with  the  rainfall  map  of  the  United  States,  Exercise  14. 

2.  The  farms  where  hogs  are  raised  in  large  numbers  are  situated  in  or  near  the 
corn  belt.  What  is  the  chief  food  of  the  millions  of  hogs  which  are  raised  annually  in 
the  United  States?     Cattle  also  are  fed  upon  this  grain  for  fattening. 

3.  Why  are  many  of  the  great  packing  houses  of  the  country  located  in  or  near 
the  corn  belt?  Mark  with  small  circles  Kansas  City,  Mo.,  Omaha,  Neb.,  St.  Louis,  Mo., 
Sioux  City,  la.,  Chicago,  111. 

4.  Compare  the  map  showing  the  area  producing  corn  with  the  map  showing  the 
area  producing  wheat.  Which  cereal  is  the  more  hardy?  Which  requires  the  longer 
summers  and  warmer  nights? 

Advanced  Work 

5.  Consult  a  commercial  geography  and  make  a  list  of  the  uses  of  the  corn  plant, 
and  the  products  obtained  from  it. 

6.  As  in  Exercise  39  make  rectangles  showing  the  production  of  corn  by  states. 
Use  the  following  table. 

Shade  or  color  the  rectangles.     At  the  top  and  toward  the  right  label  your  diagram, 
States  Producing  the  most  Corn,  Average  for  Five  Years,  1912-1916. 
Scale,  1  cm.  =  20,000,000  bushels. 


TABLE 


States 

Length  of  Rectangle  in  cm. 

States 

Length  of  Rectangle  in  cm. 

IS  3 

15.9 

9.1 

8.8 

8.6 

7.4 

Ohio 

7.3 

Indiana 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

5  5 

4.8 

3  7 

Davis, 

76,  348 

REFEB 

ENCES 

G.  &B. 

348 

131 


EXERCISE  XLII 

FIELD   TRIP   TO   A    QUARRY 

Note.  In  nearly  every  locality  are  places  to  which  profitable  field  excursions  may  be  made  with  the 
class.  The  following  outlines  of  trips  are  made  sufficiently  general,  it  is  thought,  to  be  of  use  in  many 
places.  No  one  school  may  be  able  to  take  all  the  trips,  but  it  is  hoped  that  one  or  more  may  be  made  by 
every  class. 

On  the  quarry  trip  the  teacher  may  carry  a  bottle  of  hydrochloric  acid  to  use  to 
test  for  limestone.  A  hammer  should  be  taken  to  use  in  breaking  off  a  piece  to  get  a 
fresh  surface  of  the  rock.  Pupils  will  write  up  the  trips  and  hand  in  the  reports  the 
next  day. 

1.  Does  the  rock  at  the  quarry  outcrop  or  is  it  covered  with  a  layer  of  mantle 
rock  and  soil.     If  covered,  how  deep  is  the  covering? 

2.  Is  the  bed  rock  in  well  marked  layers  or  does  it  form  a  solid  unbroken  wall? 
Sketch  the  appearance  of  the  side  of  the  quarry. 

3.  What  is  the  name  of  the  rock  which  is  being  quarried?     How  do  you  recognize  it? 

4.  Look  for  nearly  vertical  breaks  in  the  rock  wall.  These  are  called  joints.  If 
present,  in  what  directions  do  they  extend?  Are  they  a  help  or  a  hindrance  to  the 
quarrymen? 

5.  Do  you  find  water  entering  the  quarry  along  the  sides?  Where  does  it  come 
from?     How  does  it  reach  the  quarry? 

6.  Give  an  estimate  of  the  depth  of  the  quarry.  Does  the  rock  extend  beyond 
this  depth? 

7.  What  difference  in  color,  if  any,  do  you  find  between  the  rock  at  the  top  and 
that  at  the  bottom?  Is  the  rock  more  solid  and  unbroken  at  the  top  or  at  the  bottom? 
Account  for  these  differences. 

8.  Describe  the  method  of  removing  and  handling  the  rock. 

9.  Give  all  the  purposes  for  which  the  rock  is  being  used  and  tell  how  it  is  pre- 
pared for  each  purpose.  , 

10.  Name  any  foreign  minerals  or  substances  occurring  in  the  rock,  as  pyrite,  flint, 
iron  oxide,  calcite,  bitumen.     Describe  the  way  in  which  they  occur. 

11.  Are  fossils  found  in  the  rock?     If  present,  describe  the  kinds  found. 


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EXERCISE  XLIII 

FIELD   TRIP   TO   STUDY   STREAM   ACTION 

Nearly  any  creek  or  small  stream  will  furnish  profitable  study  for  a  class.  A  tape 
line  may  be  taken  to  make  measurements. 

1.  In  what  direction  does  the  stream  flow?     Give  an  estimate  of  its  length. 

2.  Give  the  width  of  the  valley  where  studied.  Does  the  valley  become  wider 
or  narrower  up  stream?     Down  stream? 

3.  How  deep  is  the  valley  floor  below  the  upland  on  either  side?  Look  where 
the  stream  cuts  against  the  valley  wall.     Of  what  material  are  the  walls  made? 

4.  How  wide  is  the  valley  floor?     Is  it  nearly  level? 

5.  Examine  the  bank  of  the  stream  and  tell  of  what  material  the  valley  floor  is 
made.     What  has  put  the  material  here?     Do  you  find  it  stratified? 

6.  How  wide  is  the  channel  of  the  stream?     How  deep  below  the  valley  floor? 

7.  What  material  forms  the  bottom  of  the  channel  in  different  places?  Is  bed 
rock  present? 

8.  Is  the  course  of  the  stream  in  its  valley  nearly  straight,  or  does  it  wind  about 
from  one  side  to  the  other?     Make  a  sketch  of  its  course. 

9.  Find  a  place  where  the  stream  strikes  the  sides  of  the  valley  and  tell  how  it  is 
changing  the  width  of  the  valley  at  this  point.  This  is  called  side  cutting.  How  many 
such  places  do  you  see? 

10.  At  a  bend  in  the  stream  is  the  bank  steeper  on  the  outside  or  inside  of  the  curve? 
Is  this  true  of  all  bends? 

11.  Study  the  movement  of  water  at  a  bend.  On  which  side  of  the  curve  is  the 
swifter  current?     The  deeper  water? 

12.  What  work  does  the  stream  seem  to  be  doing  at  the  outside  of  the  curve?  Do 
you  find  sand  and  gravel  deposited  on  the  inside  of  the  curve?  Tell  how  it  was  put 
there. 

13.  Find  a  tributary  to  the  stream.  Is  its  slope  more  or  less  steep  than  that  of 
the  main  stream?     Is  its  valley  wider  or  narrower? 

14.  Tell  of  any  special  features  you  find,  as  ox-bow  lakes,  abandoned  channels, 
landslides,  waterfalls,  rapids,  terraces. 

Advanced  Work 

15.  Write  an  account  of  the  ways  in  which  this  stream  is  making  its  valley  deeper, 
wider,  and  longer.  Tell  how  this  will  affect  the  area  of  the  higher  land  outside  of  the 
valley.  Tell  how  the  water  of  this  stream  reaches  the  ocean,  naming  all  the  streams 
and  rivers  through  which  it  flows  in  its  course. 

1G.  Make  a  contour  map  of  the  valley  you  have  studied.  Mark  the  channel  of 
the  stream  with  a  double  line,  putting  in  the  tributaries  carefully.  Use  a  5-  or  a  10-ft. 
interval  and  draw  contour  lines  to  represent  the  sides  of  the  valley.  Mark  fences,  roads, 
and  other  works  of  man.  Sketch  carefully  in  the  field,  and  make  in  ink  at  home  on  a 
sheet  of  your  note-book  paper.     Use  red  ink  for  your  contour  lines. 


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EXERCISE  XLIV 

FIELD   TRIP  TO  A  BEACH 

On  the  shore  of  a  lake  or  the  sea,  beaches  are  made  by  the  work  of  the  waves  and 
shore  currents. 

1.  Name  all  the  kinds  of  material  you  find  on  the  beach. 

2.  What  kinds  of  material  do  you  see  the  waves  bringing  up  on  the  shore?  Watch 
each  kind  to  see  whether  it  floats,  slides,  or  rolls,  and  write  what  you  find. 

3.  Do  the  waves  take  material  away  from  the  shore?  Do  they  remove  more  or 
less  than  they  bring  in?     Are  they  tearing  down  or  building  up  the  beach? 

4.  If  the  wave  action  is  vigorous  you  may  hear  a  grinding  or  crushing  sound. 
Tell  what  causes  it. 

5.  Tell  how  you  think  the  sand  of  the  beach  has  been  made.  Of  what  mineral 
is  the  sand  made? 

6.  Of  what  shape  are  the  pebbles?  What  has  made  them  this  shape?  Sketch 
several  on  your  paper. 

7.  Dig  into  the  beach  material.  Is  the  sand  and  gravel  stratified?  Explain 
what  made  it  so.     Look  to  see  this  process  in  action. 

8.  If  a  pier  projects  into  the  water  look  for  a  deposit  of  beach  material  on  one 
side  of  it  more  than  on  the  other.  Explain  what  has  caused  it.  Look  up  prevailing 
wind  and  notice  whether  there  is  any  movement  of  the  water  along  the  shore. 

9.  Write  of  other  features  you  find,  as  sand  bars,  deltas,  cliffs,  caves,  spits,  hooks, 
barrier  beaches. 

10.   Write  about  the  work  done  by  the  waves  along  a  shore.     Also  about  the  work 
of  the  shore  currents. 


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EXERCISE  XLV 
FIELD   TRIP   TO   A  BRICK  YARD 

The  clay  used  in  brick  making  varies  greatly  in  different  localities.  In  the  glaci- 
ated area  of  the  United  States  it  is  commonly  a  glacial  deposit  and  grooved  and  striated 
stones  may  be  found  in  it.     It  is  often  highly  colored  by  the  presence  of  oxides  of  iron. 

1.  Does  soil  or  other  material  cover  the  clay?     To  what  depth? 

2.  To  what  depth  does  the  clay  extend  in  the  clay  pit?  Give  the  greatest  thick- 
ness of  the  clay  at  this  place. 

3.  Examine  the  bank  of  clay  and  tell  if  it  varies  in  color  or  character  in  passing 
from  the  top  to  the  bottom.     Account  for  any  difference  you  find. 

4.  Rub  some  damp  clay  between  the  thumb  and  finger.  Is  it  uniformly  fine- 
grained or  are  there  sand  grains  and  small  stones  in  it?  Do  you  find  clearly  defined 
layers  in  the  clay? 

5.  Do  you  find  stones  in  the  clay?     How  large  are  most  of  them? 

6.  Are  the  stones  rounded  or  angular?  Do  you  find  scratches  or  other  markings 
on  them?     Account  for  any  markings  you  find. 

7.  If  you  find  stones  with  glacial  scratches  make  sketches  to  show  these  markings. 
How  could  they  have  become  marked  on  more  than  one  side? 

8.  For  what  purposes  is  the  clay  being  used?  Tell  something  of  the  process  to 
which  it  is  submitted. 

Advanced  Work 

9.  Tell  why  many  bricks  turn  red  when  they  are  burned. 

10.  Determine  whether  the  clay  of  the  pit  is  a  deposit  from  water  or  has  been 
left  by  the  overriding  ice  sheet.  Tell  in  either  case  how  it  happened  to  be  left  in  this 
particular  place,  how  it  was  deposited,  and  from  what  materials  the  clay  particles  came. 


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